{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T15:00:25Z","timestamp":1792162825363,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]],"date-time":"2025-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["NIAID R01 AI140405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIAID R01 AI140405"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the last few decades, the prevalence of metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, hypertension, and hyperuricemia has surged, primarily due to high-fat diet (HFD). The pathologies of these metabolic diseases show disease-specific alterations in the composition and function of their gut microbiome. How HFD alters the microbiome and its metabolite to mediate adipose tissue (AT) inflammation and obesity is not well known. Thus, this study aimed to identify the changes in the gut microbiome and metabolomic signatures induced by an HFD to alter obesity. To explore the changes in the gut microbiota and metabolites, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and metabolomic analyses were performed after HFD and normal diet (ND) feeding. We noticed that, at taxonomic levels, the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs), along with the Chao and Shannon indexes, significantly shifted in HFD-fed mice compared to those fed a ND. Similarly, at the phylum level, an increase in Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidetes were noticed in HFD-fed mice. At the genus level, an increase in Lactobacillus and Ruminococcus was observed, while Allobaculum, Clostridium, and Akkermansia were markedly reduced in the HFD group. Many bacteria from the Ruminococcus genus impair bile acid metabolism and restrict weight loss. Firmicutes are efficient in breaking down complex carbohydrates into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and other metabolites, whereas Bacteroidetes are involved in a more balanced or efficient energy extraction. Thus, an increase in Firmicutes over Bacteroidetes enhances the absorption of more calories from food, which may contribute to obesity. Taken together, the altered gut microbiota and metabolites trigger AT inflammation, which contributes to metabolic dysregulation and disease progression. Thus, this study highlights the potential of the gut microbiome in the development of therapeutic strategies for obesity and related metabolic disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14060463","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]],"date-time":"2025-03-20T07:59:54Z","timestamp":1742457594000},"page":"463","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Impact of a High-Fat Diet on the Gut Microbiome: A Comprehensive Study of Microbial and Metabolite Shifts During Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Md Abdullah Al","family":"Mamun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3335-0368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Rakib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8131-1668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mousumi","family":"Mandal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7048-4325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Udai P.","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 881 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro820","article-title":"What does the future hold for clinical microbiology?","volume":"2","author":"Raoult","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2011-301805","article-title":"A metagenomic insight into our gut\u2019s microbiome","volume":"62","author":"Lepage","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05414","article-title":"An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest","volume":"444","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-019-0176-8","article-title":"Obesity: Global epidemiology and pathogenesis","volume":"15","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.8b00945","article-title":"Metabolic and gut microbial characterization of obesity-prone mice under a high-fat diet","volume":"18","author":"Gu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20160221","article-title":"The importance of gene\u2013environment interactions in human obesity","volume":"130","author":"Reddon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15718","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407076101","article-title":"The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage","volume":"101","author":"Backhed","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.07.004","article-title":"Obese individuals with and without type 2 diabetes show different gut microbial functional capacity and composition","volume":"26","author":"Thingholm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07540","article-title":"A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins","volume":"457","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, R., Xiang, X., Shi, Y., Xie, J., Xing, L., Zhang, T., Zhou, Z., and Zhang, D. (2024). Gut microbiota and mycobiota change with feeding duration in mice on a high-fat and high-fructose diet. BMC Microbiol., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-024-03663-0"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Secchiero, P., Rimondi, E., Marcuzzi, A., Longo, G., Papi, C., Manfredini, M., Fields, M., Caruso, L., Di Caprio, R., and Balato, A. (2024). Metabolic Syndrome and Psoriasis: Pivotal Roles of Chronic Inflammation and Gut Microbiota. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25158098"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18846","article-title":"Diet\u2013microbiota interactions as moderators of human metabolism","volume":"535","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.10.043","article-title":"A dietary fiber-deprived gut microbiota degrades the colonic mucus barrier and enhances pathogen susceptibility","volume":"167","author":"Desai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.03.005","article-title":"Crosstalk between microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and intestinal epithelial HIF augments tissue barrier function","volume":"17","author":"Kelly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7353642","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7353642","article-title":"Role of gut microbiota in the aetiology of obesity: Proposed mechanisms and review of the literature","volume":"2016","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4614","DOI":"10.1021\/jf3054017","article-title":"In vitro degradation and fermentation of three dietary fiber sources by human colonic bacteria","volume":"61","author":"Bliss","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.041","article-title":"From dietary fiber to host physiology: Short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites","volume":"165","author":"Koh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pindjakova, J., Sartini, C., Lo Re, O., Rappa, F., Coupe, B., Lelouvier, B., Pazienza, V., and Vinciguerra, M. (2017). Gut dysbiosis and adaptive immune response in diet-induced obesity vs. systemic inflammation. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01157"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2337\/db06-1491","article-title":"Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"56","author":"Cani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R698","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00039.2002","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide regulates proinflammatory cytokine expression in mouse myoblasts and skeletal muscle","volume":"283","author":"Frost","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2434","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019645","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila protects against atherosclerosis by preventing metabolic endotoxemia-induced inflammation in Apoe\u2212\/\u2212 mice","volume":"133","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1139\/w03-075","article-title":"Culture-independent phylogenetic analysis of the faecal flora of the rat","volume":"49","author":"Brooks","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2013.0071","article-title":"Gut carbohydrate metabolism instead of fat metabolism regulated by gut microbes mediates high-fat diet-induced obesity","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10.7.1","DOI":"10.1002\/0471250953.bi1007s36","article-title":"Using QIIME to analyze 16S rRNA gene sequences from microbial communities","volume":"36","author":"Kuczynski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btw725","article-title":"Calypso: A user-friendly web-server for mining and visualizing microbiome\u2013environment interactions","volume":"33","author":"Zakrzewski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xc, M. (2012). Dysfunction of the intestinal microbiome in inflammatory bowel disease and treatment. Genome Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2012-13-9-r79"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0000000000000209","article-title":"Influence of high-fat diet on gut microbiota: A driving force for chronic disease risk","volume":"18","author":"Murphy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1038\/4441022a","article-title":"Human gut microbes associated with obesity","volume":"444","author":"Ley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2365","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812600106","article-title":"Human gut microbiota in obesity and after gastric bypass","volume":"106","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1720","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2008.155","article-title":"Human colonic microbiota associated with diet, obesity and weight loss","volume":"32","author":"Duncan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2009.167","article-title":"Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects","volume":"18","author":"Schwiertz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms3020213","article-title":"Does the gut microbiota contribute to obesity? Going beyond the gut feeling","volume":"3","author":"Aguirre","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.151803.112","article-title":"Meta-analyses of studies of the human microbiota","volume":"23","author":"Lozupone","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e120","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkn491","article-title":"Accurate taxonomy assignments from 16S rRNA sequences produced by highly parallel pyrosequencers","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choo, J.M., Leong, L.E., and Rogers, G.B. (2015). Sample storage conditions significantly influence faecal microbiome profiles. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep16350"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2012.153","article-title":"An opportunistic pathogen isolated from the gut of an obese human causes obesity in germfree mice","volume":"7","author":"Fei","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rastogi, S., and Singh, A. (2022). Gut microbiome and human health: Exploring how the probiotic genus Lactobacillus modulate immune responses. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1042189"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7010017","article-title":"The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health","volume":"7","author":"Conlon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v11.i8.619","article-title":"Prolonged high-fat-diet feeding promotes non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and alters gut microbiota in mice","volume":"11","author":"Velazquez","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.12.024","article-title":"Dietary fat, the gut microbiota, and metabolic health\u2013A systematic review conducted within the MyNewGut project","volume":"38","author":"Wolters","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00053.2017","article-title":"Genetic and microbiome influence on lipid metabolism and dyslipidemia","volume":"50","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Genom."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0433-9","article-title":"Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease","volume":"19","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Liu, Q., Peng, C., and Ruan, B. (2020). Both gut microbiota and differentially expressed proteins are relevant to the development of obesity. BioMed Res. Int., 2020.","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5376108"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Noronha, S.I.R., de Moraes, L.A.G., Hassell, J.E., Stamper, C.E., Arnold, M.R., Heinze, J.D., Foxx, C.L., Lieb, M.M., Cler, K.E., and Karns, B.L. (2024). High-fat diet, microbiome-gut-brain axis signaling, and anxiety-like behavior in male rats. Biol. Res., 57.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40659-024-00505-1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2016.06.002","article-title":"Causality of small and large intestinal microbiota in weight regulation and insulin resistance","volume":"5","author":"Scheithauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12820","article-title":"Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome","volume":"505","author":"David","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.02873-0","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila gen. nov., sp. nov., a human intestinal mucin-degrading bacterium","volume":"54","author":"Derrien","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Lan, C., Li, H., Ouyang, Q., Kong, F., Wu, A., Ren, Z., Tian, G., Cai, J., and Yu, B. (2022). Rational consideration of Akkermansia muciniphila targeting intestinal health: Advantages and challenges. npj Biofilms Microbiomes, 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-022-00338-4"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0495-2","article-title":"Supplementation with Akkermansia muciniphila in overweight and obese human volunteers: A proof-of-concept exploratory study","volume":"25","author":"Depommier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lagkouvardos, I., Lesker, T.R., Hitch, T.C., G\u00e1lvez, E.J., Smit, N., Neuhaus, K., Wang, J., Baines, J.F., Abt, B., and Stecher, B. (2019). Sequence and cultivation study of Muribaculaceae reveals novel species, host preference, and functional potential of this yet undescribed family. Microbiome, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-019-0637-2"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37816","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.37816","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced acceleration of type 1 diabetes alters maturation of innate intestinal immunity","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-023-03095-2","article-title":"Microbiome modulation in inflammatory diseases: Progress to microbiome genetic engineering","volume":"23","author":"Mousavinasab","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI92035","article-title":"Inflammatory mechanisms linking obesity and metabolic disease","volume":"127","author":"Saltiel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-019-00345-1","article-title":"Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and obesity treatment","volume":"8","author":"Brunner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3790","article-title":"A guiding map for inflammation","volume":"18","author":"Netea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3071","article-title":"Macrophage-mediated inflammation in metabolic disease","volume":"11","author":"Chawla","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zacar\u00edas, M.F., Collado, M.C., Gomez-Gallego, C., Flinck, H., Aittoniemi, J., Isolauri, E., and Salminen, S. (2018). Pregestational overweight and obesity are associated with differences in gut microbiota composition and systemic inflammation in the third trimester. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200305"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maffei, M., Funicello, M., Vottari, T., Gamucci, O., Costa, M., Lisi, S., Viegi, A., Ciampi, O., Bardi, G., and Vitti, P. (2009). The obesity and inflammatory marker haptoglobin attracts monocytes via interaction with chemokine (CC motif) receptor 2 (CCR2). BMC Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-7-87"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2678","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-031965","article-title":"Serum haptoglobin: A novel marker of adiposity in humans","volume":"89","author":"Chiellini","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perumal, N.L., Mufida, A., Yadav, A.K., Son, D.-G., Ryoo, Y.-W., Kim, S.-A., and Jang, B.-C. (2023). Suppression of Lipid Accumulation in the Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and Human Adipose Stem Cells into Adipocytes by TAK-715, a Specific Inhibitor of p38 MAPK. Life, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/life13020412"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.03.001","article-title":"Regulation of obesity-related insulin resistance with gut anti-inflammatory agents","volume":"21","author":"Luck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ19-0417","article-title":"Molecular mechanism of obesity-induced adipose tissue inflammation; the role of Mincle in adipose tissue fibrosis and ectopic lipid accumulation","volume":"67","author":"Tanaka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)80943-5","article-title":"Murine caspase-11, an ICE-interacting protease, is essential for the activation of ICE","volume":"92","author":"Wang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cdd.4401087","article-title":"Distinct downstream pathways of caspase-11 in regulating apoptosis and cytokine maturation during septic shock response","volume":"9","author":"Kang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1240248","article-title":"Noncanonical inflammasome activation by intracellular LPS independent of TLR4","volume":"341","author":"Kayagaki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1240988","article-title":"Cytoplasmic LPS activates caspase-11: Implications in TLR4-independent endotoxic shock","volume":"341","author":"Hagar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8761","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9761","article-title":"Human caspase-4 and caspase-5 regulate the one-step non-canonical inflammasome activation in monocytes","volume":"6","author":"Diamond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Bander, Z., Nitert, M.D., Mousa, A., and Naderpoor, N. (2020). The gut microbiota and inflammation: An overview. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17207618"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-0979","article-title":"Increase in plasma endotoxin concentrations and the expression of Toll-like receptors and suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 in mononuclear cells after a high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal: Implications for insulin resistance","volume":"32","author":"Ghanim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2023.03.027","article-title":"Gut-derived bacterial LPS attenuates incubation of methamphetamine craving via modulating microglia","volume":"111","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.14328","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide and the gut microbiota: Considering structural variation","volume":"596","author":"Mohr","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"26191","article-title":"Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota in disease","volume":"26","author":"Carding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hills, R.D., Pontefract, B.A., Mishcon, H.R., Black, C.A., Sutton, S.C., and Theberge, C.R. (2019). Gut microbiome: Profound implications for diet and disease. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071613"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-018-1188-4","article-title":"The gut microbiome alterations and inflammation-driven pathogenesis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u2014A critical review","volume":"56","author":"Sochocka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6342","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7342","article-title":"Fat, fibre and cancer risk in African Americans and rural Africans","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez-Alcoholado, L., Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, R., Otero, A., Plaza-Andrade, I., Laborda-Illanes, A., Medina, J.A., Ramos-Molina, B., G\u00f3mez-Mill\u00e1n, J., and Queipo-Ortu\u00f1o, M.I. (2020). Gut microbiota-mediated inflammation and gut permeability in patients with obesity and colorectal cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21186782"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1080\/01635581.2017.1263750","article-title":"Intestinal proportion of Blautia sp. is associated with clinical stage and histoprognostic grade in patients with early-stage breast cancer","volume":"69","author":"Luu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11450","article-title":"A metagenome-wide association study of gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes","volume":"490","author":"Qin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12198","article-title":"Gut metagenome in European women with normal, impaired and diabetic glucose control","volume":"498","author":"Karlsson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11070","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0504978102","article-title":"Obesity alters gut microbial ecology","volume":"102","author":"Ley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665114001700","article-title":"Gut microbiota and energy balance: Role in obesity","volume":"74","author":"Blaut","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2021.03.025","article-title":"The adverse metabolic effects of branched-chain amino acids are mediated by isoleucine and valine","volume":"33","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Metab."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/14\/6\/463\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:57:12Z","timestamp":1760029032000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/14\/6\/463"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["cells14060463"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells14060463","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]]}}}