{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T14:16:40Z","timestamp":1789827400761,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]],"date-time":"2025-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rates of depression and anxiety have increased significantly in recent decades, with many patients experiencing treatment-resistant symptoms. Beyond psychiatric manifestations, these conditions are associated with heightened risks of suicide, cardiovascular disease, chronic pain, and fatigue. Emerging research suggests that neuroinflammation, immune dysregulation, and hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis dysfunction contribute to their pathophysiology, often interacting bidirectionally with stress. While current first-line treatments primarily target neurotransmitter imbalances, many patients do not achieve symptom resolution, highlighting the need for novel approaches. This review explores the role of immune dysfunction, cytokine activity, and neurotransmitter interactions in depression and anxiety. Additionally, we examine how existing pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions influence inflammation and immune responses. Understanding these mechanisms may pave the way for more integrative treatment strategies that combine immune modulation with traditional psychiatric therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14080607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]],"date-time":"2025-04-17T04:16:21Z","timestamp":1744863381000},"page":"607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Immune Dysregulation in Depression and Anxiety: A Review of the Immune Response in Disease and Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Christopher","family":"Hole","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University, Englewood, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akash","family":"Dhamsania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University, Englewood, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassandra","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University, Englewood, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Ryznar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University, Englewood, CO 80112, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rocky Vista University, Englewood, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2022.05.014","article-title":"Trends in U.S. Depression Prevalence From 2015 to 2020: The Widening Treatment Gap","volume":"63","author":"Goodwin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. 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