{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T00:05:48Z","timestamp":1793318748129,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can modulate cortical excitability in a polarity-specific manner, yet identical protocols often produce inconsistent outcomes across sessions or individuals. This narrative review proposes that much of this variability arises from the brain\u2019s intrinsic temporal landscape. Integrating evidence from chronobiology, sleep research, and non-invasive brain stimulation, we argue that tDCS produces reliable, polarity-specific after-effects only within a circadian\u2013homeostatic \u201cwindow of efficacy\u201d. On the circadian (Process C) axis, intrinsic alertness, membrane depolarisation, and glutamatergic gain rise in the late biological morning and early evening, whereas pre-dawn phases are marked by reduced excitability and heightened inhibition. On the homeostatic (Process S) axis, consolidated sleep renormalises synaptic weights, widening the capacity for further potentiation, whereas prolonged wakefulness saturates plasticity and can even reverse the usual anodal\/cathodal polarity rules. Human stimulation studies mirror this two-process fingerprint: sleep deprivation abolishes anodal long-term-potentiation-like effects and converts cathodal inhibition into facilitation, while stimulating at each participant\u2019s chronotype-aligned (phase-aligned) peak time amplifies and prolongs after-effects even under equal sleep pressure. From these observations we derive practical recommendations: (i) schedule excitatory tDCS after restorative sleep and near the individual wake-maintenance zone; (ii) avoid sessions at high sleep pressure or circadian troughs; (iii) log melatonin phase, chronotype, recent sleep and, where feasible, core temperature; and (iv) consider mild pre-heating or time-restricted feeding as physiological primers. By viewing Borb\u00e9ly\u2019s two-process model and allied metabolic clocks as adjustable knobs for plasticity engineering, this review provides a conceptual scaffold for personalised, time-sensitive tDCS protocols that could improve reproducibility in research and therapeutic gain in the clinic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14151152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T14:40:02Z","timestamp":1753454402000},"page":"1152","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Influence of Circadian Rhythms on Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Effects: Theoretical and Practical Considerations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5320-3658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Chmiel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physical Culture and Health, Institute of Physical Culture Sciences, University of Szczecin, Al. Piast\u00f3w 40B Block 6, 71-065 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1712-0602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Malinowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, University of Szczecin, 71-017 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kronfeld-Schor, N., Bloch, G., and Schwartz, W.J. (2013). Animal clocks: When science meets nature. Proc. Biol. Sci., 280.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.1354"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s12576-018-0597-5","article-title":"The mammalian circadian system: A hierarchical multi-oscillator structure for generating circadian rhythm","volume":"68","author":"Honma","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Physiol. 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