{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T00:15:06Z","timestamp":1778199306044,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation"},{"name":"University of Bielefeld"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a disease characterized by ectopic bone formation, which can occur following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we established a stem cell model using adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and skeletal stem cells (SSCs) to examine osteogenic factors present in the sera of TBI patients. Incubation of ADSCs and SSCs with osteoinductive medium supplemented with TBI serum significantly enhanced osteogenic differentiation, particularly in male ADSCs and both female and male SSCs, with male SSCs exhibiting the highest osteogenic potential. Furthermore, we identified TGF-\u03b21 as an important factor involved in these osteogenic processes. Elevated levels of TGF-\u03b21 were detected in the serum of male TBI patients 14 days post-injury. Cellular assays revealed a sexual dimorphism in response to TGF-\u03b21 neutralization: osteogenic differentiation in male SSCs was significantly reduced, while no effect was detectable in female SSCs. These findings, together with the rarity of HO in female patients, suggest that TGF-\u03b21 plays a central role in the development of HO in males. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of considering sex-specific mechanisms in traumatic HO for the development of sex-specific therapy options.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14191491","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]],"date-time":"2025-09-24T09:43:12Z","timestamp":1758706992000},"page":"1491","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Novel Human Stem Cell Culture Model for Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Reflecting Sexual Dimorphism in Heterotopic Ossification"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jonas","family":"Joneleit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Neurobiology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Philipp","family":"Leimk\u00fchler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Trauma and Orthopedic Surgery, Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation, Campus Bielefeld-Bethel, University Hospital OWL of Bielefeld University, Burgsteig 13, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tarek","family":"Niemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Neurobiology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Ruwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Laboratory Medicine and Microbiology, Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation, Campus Bielefeld-Bethel, University Hospital OWL of Bielefeld University, Burgsteig 13, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Jantos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Laboratory Medicine and Microbiology, Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation, Campus Bielefeld-Bethel, University Hospital OWL of Bielefeld University, Burgsteig 13, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2352-7951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dirk","family":"W\u00e4hnert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Trauma and Orthopedic Surgery, Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation, Campus Bielefeld-Bethel, University Hospital OWL of Bielefeld University, Burgsteig 13, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Kaltschmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Vordemvenne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Trauma and Orthopedic Surgery, Protestant Hospital of Bethel Foundation, Campus Bielefeld-Bethel, University Hospital OWL of Bielefeld University, Burgsteig 13, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Kaltschmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Neurobiology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Forschungsverbund BioMedizin Bielefeld\/OWL FBMB e.V., Maraweg 21, 33617 Bielefeld, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, Bielefeld University, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajwa, N.M., Kesavan, C., and Mohan, S. 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