{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T16:16:52Z","timestamp":1790957812463,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":190,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,27]],"date-time":"2025-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758931200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains the leading cause of death worldwide, with myocardial ischemia\/reperfusion injury (MIRI) emerging as a significant factor influencing patient outcomes despite timely reperfusion therapy. MIRI refers to paradoxical myocardial damage that occurs upon restoration of coronary blood flow and is driven by complex inflammatory, oxidative, and metabolic mechanisms, which can exacerbate infarct size (IS), contributing to adverse outcomes. This review explores the molecular and cellular pathophysiology of MIRI, emphasizing both its clinical and forensic relevance. The principal mechanisms discussed include oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, calcium overload and ion homeostasis imbalance, inflammatory responses, with particular focus on the NLRP3 inflammasome and cytokine pathways, and multiple forms of cell death (apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, and autophagy). Additionally, the authors present original immunohistochemical findings from autopsy cases of patients who suffered ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), but subsequently died. These findings underscore that successful reperfusion does not completely prevent delayed complications, like arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation (VF), and sudden cardiac death (SCD), often caused by secondary MIRI-related mechanisms. Moreover, the case series highlight the diagnostic value of inflammatory markers for pathologists in identifying MIRI as a contributing factor in such fatalities. Finally, immunotherapeutic strategies\u2014including IL-1 and IL-6 inhibitors such as Canakinumab and Tocilizumab\u2014are reviewed for their potential to reduce cardiovascular events and mitigate the effects of MIRI. The review advocates for continued multidisciplinary research aimed at improving our understanding of MIRI, developing effective treatments, and informing forensic investigations of reperfusion-related deaths.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14191509","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T10:49:34Z","timestamp":1759142974000},"page":"1509","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Myocardial Ischemia\/Reperfusion Injury: Molecular Insights, Forensic Perspectives, and Therapeutic Horizons"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4286-1788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Sofia","family":"Fede","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gloria","family":"Daziani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6452-5880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Tavoletta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0508-6523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelo","family":"Montana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1924-6548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Compagnucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology and Arrhythmology Clinic, Marche University Hospital, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaia","family":"Goteri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pathologic Anatomy and Histopathology, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6459-1669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margherita","family":"Neri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Forensic Pathology, Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine Department, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco Paolo","family":"Busard\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehx393","article-title":"2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)","volume":"39","author":"Ibanez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. 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