{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T05:31:17Z","timestamp":1792042277753,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":158,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are increasingly being defined not only in terms of metabolic or purely vascular disorders, but also as complex immunometabolic disorders. One of the most groundbreaking discoveries in recent years is the role of neutrophil extracellular networks (NETs\/NENs) as a key link between chronic vascular wall inflammation and thrombotic processes. In this article, we present a synthetic overview of the latest data on the biology of NETs\/NENs and their impact on the development of atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, and the mechanisms of immunothrombosis. We highlight how these structures contribute to the weakening of atherosclerotic plaque stability, impaired endothelial barrier integrity, platelet activation, and the initiation of the coagulation cascade. We also discuss the modulating role of classic risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, and exposure to tobacco smoke, which may increase the formation or hinder the elimination of NETs\/NENs. We also focus on the practical application of this knowledge: we present biomarkers associated with the presence of NETs\/NENs (cfDNA, MPO\u2013DNA complexes, CitH3, NE), which may be useful in diagnostics and risk stratification, and we discuss innovative therapeutic strategies. In addition to classic methods for indirectly inhibiting NET\/NEN formation (antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, and immunometabolic agents), we present experimental approaches aimed at their neutralization and removal (e.g., DNase I, elastase, and myeloperoxidase inhibitors). We pay particular attention to the context of cardiac and cardiac surgical procedures (Percutaneous Coronary Intervention-PCI, coronary artery bypass grafting-CABG), where rapid NET\/NEN bursts can increase the risk of acute thrombotic complications. The overall evidence indicates that NETs\/NENs represent an innovative and promising research and therapeutic target, allowing us to view cardiovascular diseases in a new light\u2014as a dynamic interaction of inflammatory, atherosclerotic, and thrombotic processes. This opens up new possibilities in diagnostics, combination treatment and personalisation of therapy, although further research and standardization of detection methods remain necessary.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14191562","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T14:06:53Z","timestamp":1759932413000},"page":"1562","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The Role of Neutrophil Extracellular Networks in Cardiovascular Pathology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0904-0793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zofia","family":"Szyma\u0144ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0193-8094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antoni","family":"Staniewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Karpi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Zalewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliwia","family":"Kalus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6210-3109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zofia","family":"Gramala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5283-5640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Ma\u0107kowiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Research Student Group, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7121-1396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Mertowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chod\u017aki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6563-0877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof J.","family":"Filipiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, 99\/103 Marymoncka Street, 01-813 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mansur","family":"Rahnama-Hezavah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dental Surgery, Medical University of Lublin, 6 Chod\u017aki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0451-4741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ewelina","family":"Grywalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chod\u017aki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8080-2764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Urbanowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiac Surgery and Transplantology Department, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, \u00bd D\u0142uga, 61-848 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01990-1","article-title":"The Global Burden of Disease Study at 30 Years","volume":"28","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. 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