{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T02:53:26Z","timestamp":1792119206677,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":239,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760313600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic immune-mediated condition of the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by dysregulated inflammatory responses throughout the gastrointestinal tract. It includes two major phenotypes, Crohn\u2019s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), which present with varying gastrointestinal and systemic symptoms. The pathophysiology of IBD is multifactorial including genetic predisposition, mucosal and epithelial dysfunction, environmental injury, and both innate and adaptive immune response abnormalities. Several predisposing genetic factors have been associated with IBD explaining the strong hereditary risk for both CD and UC. For example, Caspase Recruitment Domain 9 (CARD9) variant rs10781499 increases risk for IBD, while other variants are specific to either CD or UC. CD is related to loss-of-function mutations in the nucleotide oligomerization domain containing the protein 2 (NOD2) gene and Autophagy-Related 16-like 1 (ATG16L1) gene. UC risk is increased particularly in Chinese populations by the A-1661G polymorphism of the Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) gene. This abnormal CTLA-4 interferes with B- and T-cell responses causing predisposition to autoimmune conditions. Previous studies suggested that IBD results from breakdown of the adaptive immune system, primarily of T-cells. However, new evidence suggests that a primary breakdown of the innate immune system in both CD and UC increases susceptibility to invasion by viruses and bacteria, with a compensatory overactivation of the adaptive immune system as a result. When this viral and microbial invasion continues, further damage is incurred, resulting in a downward cycle of further cytokine activation and epithelial damage. Released biomarkers also affect the permeability of the epithelial membrane, including lactoferrin, nitric oxide (NO), myeloperoxidase (MPO) and its activation of hypochlorous acid, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), especially MMP-9, omentin-1, and others. Increased macrophage and dendritic cell dysfunction, increased neutrophil activity, increased numbers of innate lymphoid cells, increased T-cells with decreased regulatory T-cells (Tregs), and changes in B-cell populations and immunoglobulin (Ig) functions are all associated with IBD. Finally, treatment of IBD has typically consisted of medical management (e.g., aminosalicylates and corticosteroids) and lifestyle modification, and surgical intervention in extreme cases. New classes of medications with more favorable side effect profiles include anti-integrin antibodies, vedolizumab, etrolizumab, and carotegrast methyl. Additionally, fecal microbiota transplant (FMT) is a newer area of research for treatment of IBD along with TNF-blockers, JAK inhibitors, and S1PR modulators. However, expense and long preparation time have limited the usefulness of FMT.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14201589","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T05:48:21Z","timestamp":1760420901000},"page":"1589","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["From Cytokines to Biomarkers: Mapping the Immunopathology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Sarah","family":"Baum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Anesthesiology Residency, University of Virginia Health, University of Virginia Hospital, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA"},{"name":"School of Medicine Greenville, University of South Carolina, Greenville, SC 29605, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0232-1419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kamron","family":"Hamedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine Greenville, University of South Carolina, Greenville, SC 29605, USA"},{"name":"Internal Medicine Residency, Virginia Mason Franciscan Health, St. Joseph Medical Center, Tacoma, WA 98405, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Loftus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29209, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gannett","family":"Loftus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine Columbia, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29209, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emily-Rose","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Residency, Yale School of Medicine, Yale New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3605-6922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Arce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine Greenville, University of South Carolina, Greenville, SC 29605, USA"},{"name":"Prisma Health Cancer Institute, Prisma Health System, University of South Carolina, Greenville, SC 29605, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2017 Inflammatory Bowel Disease Collaborators (2020). 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