{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T10:45:29Z","timestamp":1790765129634,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760659200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Propiconazole (PRO), a triazole fungicide, controls fungal diseases by disrupting ergosterol production in fungal cells. It is used in crops such as cereals and fruits. However, there are concerns regarding its potential to disrupt the endocrine system and cause reproductive toxicity. This study examined the effects of PRO on mouse testes, germ cells, and GC-1 spermatogonia. After eight weeks, PRO reduced testicular diameter and downregulated key germ cell genes (Sall4, Piwil, Nanos2, and Dazl). A histological examination revealed smaller seminiferous tubules and fewer SALL4+ cells. PRO also impaired steroidogenesis by downregulating genes (StAR, Cyp11a1, 3\u03b2-HSD1) and reducing sperm motility, with a decline in Velocity Straight Line (VSL), Linearity (LIN), Straightness (STR), and motile sperm. PRO caused dose-dependent cytotoxicity in GC-1 spermatogonia, decreased proliferation, and increased apoptosis, marked by cleaved caspase-3 and BAX. PRO also induced autophagy, as presented by elevated levels of autophagy-related genes (LC3 and ATG12) and proteins (ATG5 and LC3A\/B). 3-Methyladenine (3-MA), an autophagy inhibitor, downregulates levels of autophagy- and apoptosis-related proteins when 3-MA and PRO are simultaneously treated in vitro. This suggests that both apoptosis and autophagy contribute to PRO-induced testicular cytotoxicity. This study is the first to detail that PRO affects sperm motility in mice and induces autophagy-mediated apoptosis in GC-1 spg.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14201624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T14:29:17Z","timestamp":1760711357000},"page":"1624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Propiconazole-Induced Testis Damage and MAPK-Mediated Apoptosis and Autophagy in Germ Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Won-Young","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Livestock, Korea National University of Agriculture and Fisheries, Jeonbuk 54874, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ran","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Livestock, Korea National University of Agriculture and Fisheries, Jeonbuk 54874, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sangji University, Wonju-si 26339, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyeon Woo","family":"Sim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sangji University, Wonju-si 26339, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4589-2052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyun-Jung","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sangji University, Wonju-si 26339, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, N.T., and Stone, W.W. 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