{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T16:31:40Z","timestamp":1789835500436,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":333,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mucosal melanoma (MM) is a rare, aggressive cancer whose incidence has increased continuously over the years. This subtype of melanoma arises from melanocytes on hairless surfaces, typically in the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and urogenital tract. The most common sites of occurrence include the head and neck, the anorectal region, and the vulvovaginal region, while the rare sites of MM are the urinary tract and the upper and lower GI tract, including the esophagus, duodenum and the gallbladder. MM arises in melanocytes of the ectodermal mucosa that originate from neural crest cells and migrate through embryonic mesenchyme to their destination. Although melanocytes are located mainly in the epidermis and dermis, their presence in various extracutaneous sites, such as the eyes, mucosal tissue, and leptomeninges, is known. Although both cutaneous melanoma (CM) and MM differ in their epidemiology, genetic profile, and clinical presentation, their treatment options are similar. In contrast to the higher treatment response of CM, MM is characterized by a lower response rate to available treatment options, resulting in a poorer survival rate. In this review, we provide an overview of the biology of MM and the mechanisms regulating its development, progression and treatment resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14231884","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T16:31:52Z","timestamp":1764261112000},"page":"1884","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Mucosal Melanoma: Mechanisms of Its Etiology, Progression, Resistance and Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Sofie-Yasmin","family":"Hassan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacy, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstr. 1, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas W.","family":"Flanagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah-Lilly","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sybille","family":"Facca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Icube Laboratory, CNRS, UMR 7357, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4469-0360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youssef","family":"Haikel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dental Faculty, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"P\u00f4le de M\u00e9decine et Chirurgie Bucco-Dentaire, H\u00f4pital Civil, H\u00f4pitaux Universitaire de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0336-6425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dental Faculty, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"Research Laboratory of Surgery-Oncology, Department of Surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santeufemia, D.A., Palmieri, G., Miolo, G., Colombino, M., Doro, M.G., Frogheri, L., Paliogiannis, P., Capobianco, G., Madonia, M., and Cossu, A. 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