{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T16:49:27Z","timestamp":1784738967679,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":189,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"PRELUDIUM-BIS NCN","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UMO-2020\/39\/O\/NZ6\/03252"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UMO-2020\/39\/O\/NZ6\/03252"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Science Development Fund of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences\u2014SGGW"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dendritic cells (DCs) are among the first immune cells to detect viral invasion and play a central role in initiating and shaping antiviral immune responses. Many innate and adaptive immune functions of DCs are regulated by cathepsins, proteolytic enzymes primarily found in acidic endolysosomal compartments. Different DC subsets exhibit distinct cathepsin expression patterns, influencing their functional capacities and interactions with viruses. In DCs, cathepsins contribute to virus sensing through innate receptors, regulate cytokine production and DC migration, and are essential for viral antigen degradation and loading onto MHC molecules for T-cell activation. Many viruses, however, have evolved mechanisms to alter cathepsin expression and activity, thereby subverting DC function and promoting their own persistence. Indeed, cathepsins can facilitate viral entry into DCs, promote viral replication, and support immune evasion strategies. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding the role of cathepsins in DC\u2013virus interactions, emphasizing both how DCs exploit cathepsins to generate protective immune responses and how viruses manipulate cathepsin activity to their advantage. We particularly focus on clinically relevant viral pathogens, including HIV, influenza virus, hepatitis C virus, human cytomegalovirus, Ebola virus, and SARS-CoV-2, to illustrate the multifaceted influence of cathepsins on DC biology during viral infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14231900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T12:39:43Z","timestamp":1764679183000},"page":"1900","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Shaping the Immune Response: Cathepsins in Virus-Dendritic Cell Interactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9779-1526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrianna","family":"Niedzielska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Bossowska-Nowicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of Polish Academy of Sciences, 10-683 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8729-1207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuzanna","family":"Biernacka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karolina","family":"Gregorczyk-Zboroch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9560-8665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix N.","family":"Toka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Infectious Diseases, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lidia","family":"Szulc-D\u0105browska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00707-2","article-title":"A guide to antigen processing and presentation","volume":"22","author":"Pishesha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caro, A.A., Deschoemaeker, S., Allonsius, L., Coosemans, A., and Laoui, D. (2022). Dendritic cell vaccines: A promising approach in the fight against ovarian cancer. 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