{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T10:58:15Z","timestamp":1788951495047,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000090","name":"Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["W81XWH2120457"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH2120457"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000090","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Headache disorders, including migraine, tension-type headache, trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, post-traumatic headache and medication overuse headache, represent a major global health burden and remain difficult to treat despite therapeutic advances. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has emerged as a key regulator of neural, vascular, and immune processes central to headache pathophysiology. Through coordinated actions of CB1 and CB2 receptors, the endogenous ligands anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and their metabolic enzymes, the ECS modulates trigeminovascular activity, descending pain control, cortical excitability, and neuroimmune sensitization. Preclinical studies demonstrate that ECS activation suppresses trigeminal firing, reduces calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release, attenuates neurogenic inflammation, stabilizes cortical susceptibility to spreading depression, and limits glial activation following traumatic brain injury. Conversely, ECS dysregulation contributes to central sensitization and impaired descending inhibition underlying medication overuse headache and other headache disorders. Pharmacological strategies targeting endocannabinoid degradation, such as inhibition of FAAH, MAGL, and COX-2, enhance endogenous cannabinoid tone and consistently reduce headache-like behaviors across diverse models. Importantly, sex differences shape ECS function, with females exhibiting distinct hormonal regulation, receptor expression, and glial activation that influence responsiveness to ECS-targeted interventions. Collectively, mechanistic and translational evidence highlights the ECS as a promising therapeutic target across primary and secondary headache disorders. Future clinical studies should incorporate sex-informed designs, integrate biomarkers of trigeminovascular and neuroimmune activity, and evaluate peripherally restricted ECS modulators and cannabinoid-based formulations as candidates for individualized headache therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15040331","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T17:45:36Z","timestamp":1770831936000},"page":"331","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Endocannabinoid Modulation in Headache: Mechanisms, Models, and Translational Therapies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jie","family":"Wen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yumin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2016 Headache Collaborators (2018). 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