{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T20:55:55Z","timestamp":1789678555516,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":199,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774396800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The INRS-Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Centre, Canada","award":["Relance 2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Relance 2024"]}]},{"name":"Fonds de Recherche du Qu\u00e9bec\n\t\t\t\t\t\t              https:\/\/ror.org\/00w3qhf76","award":["363424"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["363424"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neutrophils are among the early responders of the innate immune system and play a key role in host defense against viral infections. Beyond their classical antimicrobial functions, neutrophils can engage in a specialized defense mechanism by releasing web-like extracellular DNA known as neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). These extracellular traps are a mesh-like network of chromatin DNA decorated with cellular components, including histones, proteases, and antimicrobial enzymes, that function to contain and limit the spread of pathogens. While NET formation contributes to antiviral immunity, accumulating evidence indicates that excessive or dysregulated NET formation can significantly contribute to immunopathology during viral infections. Thus, depending on the context and outcome, NET formation may be viewed as a double-edged sword. Therefore, understanding the regulatory mechanisms governing NET formation and its harmful effects is critical for developing therapeutic strategies that enhance antiviral defense while minimizing tissue damage. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular mechanisms that drive NET formation and clearance, with a particular focus on how viruses modulate these processes to influence disease outcome. We also discuss the pathways underlying NET formation and subsequent neutrophil cell death (NETosis), including canonical and non-canonical pathways, and highlight key signaling axes involving SYK, MAPKs, and NF-\u03baB. Using SARS-CoV-2 and hepatitis B virus as representative models, we examine how different viral components trigger, exploit, or evade NET targeting and how persistent accumulation of NETs can contribute to hyperinflammation, progressive tissue injury, and post-viral syndromes. We further explore emerging evidence linking impaired NET clearance and neutrophil heterogeneity, particularly low-density neutrophils (LDNs), to chronic inflammation and post-viral sequelae such as long COVID and autoimmune hepatitis. Finally, we summarize current and emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating NET formation or enhancing NET clearance. Altogether, this review underscores the dual nature of NETs in viral infections, highlighting their potential roles in antiviral defense and tissue injury, and provides a framework for the development of targeted interventions to limit virus-induced immunopathology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15070580","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T10:07:13Z","timestamp":1774433233000},"page":"580","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Viral Infections: Regulation, Immune Consequences, and Pathogenic Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8371-9138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clinton Njinju","family":"Asaba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bella Nyemkuna","family":"Gwanyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Humblenoble Stembridge","family":"Ayuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, 04318 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1867-6223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas Ikechukwu","family":"Odo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8343-8685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Razieh","family":"Bitazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4145-029X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatiana","family":"Noumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Labont\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3898-0617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terence Ndonyi","family":"Bukong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armand-Frappier Sant\u00e9 Biotechnologie Research Center, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laval, QC H7V 1B7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1178","article-title":"NETosis: Molecular Mechanisms, Role in Physiology and Pathology","volume":"85","author":"Vorobjeva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.235122","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"131","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. 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