{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T18:32:49Z","timestamp":1793039569478,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":289,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008763","name":"Clem Jones Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008763","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Goda Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease is a complex neurodegenerative condition characterized by progressive cognitive decline, neuroinflammation, metabolic dysregulation, and abnormal protein deposition. While genetic factors and amyloid-beta-focused hypotheses have been extensively investigated, they fail to fully account for the prolonged prodromal phase or the early susceptibility of olfactory and limbic regions. Emerging evidence suggests chronic peripheral and mucosal infections may influence disease risk; however, mechanisms by which microbial activity outside the central nervous system contributes to persistent neuropathology remain poorly understood. This review explores the emerging concept that bacterial outer membrane vesicles act as mobile, lipid-rich vectors linking peripheral microbial reservoirs to neuroimmune and metabolic dysfunction in the aging brain. We discuss evidence suggesting vesicles originating from oral, olfactory, and upper airway niches can access the central nervous system via vascular routes and direct neural pathways, including olfactory and trigeminal nerves, where they influence glial and endothelial cell function. We also propose the Accumulative Vesicle Load Hypothesis, which describes how cumulative lifetime exposure to bacterial vesicles shapes disease onset, anatomical vulnerability, and progression, and incorporates components of other hypotheses proposed for Alzheimer\u2019s disease. This offers a system-level perspective for early diagnosis and upstream therapeutic strategies, including minimally invasive vesicle profiling in nasal fluid, saliva, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. This work is a conceptual review that summarizes current evidence in a hierarchically organized manner and proposes a testable model; it does not assert causality where direct human evidence is currently limited.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15080690","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T10:29:08Z","timestamp":1776162548000},"page":"690","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Outer Membrane Vesicles as Systems-Level Drivers of Neuroinflammation, Metabolic Dysfunction, and Proteinopathy in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ali","family":"Delbaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Institute for Biomedicine and Glycomics, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7536-3381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James A.","family":"St John","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Institute for Biomedicine and Glycomics, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iliyasu, M.O., Musa, S.A., Oladele, S.B., and Iliya, A.I. 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