{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T18:46:50Z","timestamp":1793040410448,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82571021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82571021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32070751"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32070751"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31871435"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31871435"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["82571021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82571021"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32070751"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32070751"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["31871435"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31871435"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007219","name":"Shanghai Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["25ZR1401328"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25ZR1401328"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007219","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shanghai Oriental Talents Program","award":["BJJY2025018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BJJY2025018"]}]},{"name":"Program for Overseas High-level talents at Shanghai Institutions of Higher Learning","award":["TP2022100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TP2022100"]}]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Exercise and Health Sciences"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002397","name":"Ministry of Education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2025KF001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025KF001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002397","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2025KF001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025KF001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00b3tsf98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Skeletal muscle is vital for movement and metabolism, and its dysfunction underpins disorders like muscular dystrophy and sarcopenia, severely impacting life quality. In these diseases, various cell death pathways are pivotal, driving core pathological features such as fiber loss and chronic inflammation. This study reviews the central role of cell death in skeletal muscle diseases, and analyzes its roles and mechanisms in genetic muscle disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), glycogen storage diseases (GSD), mitochondrial myopathies, as well as acquired muscle disorders such as idiopathic inflammatory myopathy, sarcopenia, rhabdomyolysis, and myasthenia gravis (MG). We also explore the potential of cell death-related molecules as biomarkers and discuss emerging therapeutic strategies that target these pathways, aiming to provide new insights for diagnosis and treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15090744","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T12:00:32Z","timestamp":1776859232000},"page":"744","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Cell Death in Skeletal Muscle Diseases: Diverse Roles and Pathological Processes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ya-Lan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Exercise and Health Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"School of Exercise and Health and Collaborative Innovation Center for Sports and Public Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7353-8336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liang","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Exercise and Health Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"School of Exercise and Health and Collaborative Innovation Center for Sports and Public Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2012.49","article-title":"Muscles, Exercise and Obesity: Skeletal Muscle as a Secretory Organ","volume":"8","author":"Pedersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00248-3","article-title":"Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"7","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v13.i18.2541","article-title":"Glycogen Storage Diseases: New Perspectives","volume":"13","author":"Ozen","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2008.07.004","article-title":"Pathogenic Mitochondrial DNA Mutations Are Common in the General Population","volume":"83","author":"Elliott","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-023-01033-0","article-title":"Epidemiology of the Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies","volume":"19","author":"Khoo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31138-9","article-title":"Sarcopenia","volume":"393","author":"Sayer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2014.05.005","article-title":"Rhabdomyolysis: Review of the Literature","volume":"24","author":"Zutt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.disamonth.2020.101015","article-title":"Rhabdomyolysis","volume":"66","author":"Cabral","year":"2020","journal-title":"Disease-A-Month"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carr, A.S., Cardwell, C.R., McCarron, P.O., and McConville, J. (2010). A Systematic Review of Population Based Epidemiological Studies in Myasthenia Gravis. BMC Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-10-46"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-4889(92)90048-G","article-title":"Analysis and Discrimination of Necrosis and Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) by Multiparameter Flow Cytometry","volume":"1133","author":"Dive","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2006.08.011","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle Apoptosis, Sarcopenia and Frailty at Old Age","volume":"41","author":"Marzetti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12534","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms and Functions of Pyroptosis, Inflammatory Caspases and Inflammasomes in Infectious Diseases","volume":"277","author":"Man","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1272\/jnms.JNMS.2024_91-102","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Macroautophagy, Microautophagy, and Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy","volume":"91","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nippon Med. Sch."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.03.042","article-title":"Ferroptosis: An Iron-Dependent Form of Nonapoptotic Cell Death","volume":"149","author":"Dixon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.09.021","article-title":"Ferroptosis: A Regulated Cell Death Nexus Linking Metabolism, Redox Biology, and Disease","volume":"171","author":"Stockwell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2675","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2008.154369","article-title":"Nuclear Domains during Muscle Atrophy: Nuclei Lost or Paradigm Lost?","volume":"586","author":"Gundersen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2006.092072","article-title":"Neurology and Orthopaedics","volume":"78","author":"Houlden","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.27838","article-title":"Remodeling of the Neuromuscular Junction in Myasthenia Gravis Increases Serum Neurofilament Heavy Chain Levels","volume":"68","author":"Wong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005682","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.117.005682","article-title":"Oxidized CaMKII Is Essential for Ventricular Arrhythmia in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987218","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1987218","article-title":"Increased Circulating Levels of Interleukin-6 Induce Perturbation in Redox-Regulated Signaling Cascades in Muscle of Dystrophic Mice","volume":"2017","author":"Pelosi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2016.0218","article-title":"Different Donors Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Secretomes Reveal Heterogeneous Profile of Relevance for Therapeutic Use","volume":"26","author":"Assoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domi, E., Hoxha, M., Prendi, E., and Zappacosta, B. (2021). A Systematic Review on the Role of SIRT1 in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10061380"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(87)90579-4","article-title":"Dystrophin: The Protein Product of the Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Locus","volume":"51","author":"Hoffman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2013.06.007","article-title":"The Respiratory Neuromuscular System in Pompe Disease","volume":"189","author":"Fuller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labella, B., Piccinelli, S.C., Risi, B., Caria, F., Damioli, S., Bertella, E., Poli, L., Padovani, A., and Filosto, M. (2023). A Comprehensive Update on Late-Onset Pompe Disease. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13091279"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cdd.4400489","article-title":"Human Skeletal Muscle Cytosols Are Refractory to Cytochrome C-Dependent Activation of Type-II Caspases and Lack APAF-1","volume":"6","author":"Burgess","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1760","article-title":"A Case of Mitochondrial Myopathy and Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia","volume":"48","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cent. South Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0b013e32834b41d2","article-title":"An Update on Pathogenic Mechanisms of Inflammatory Myopathies","volume":"23","author":"Rayavarapu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3233\/JND-160198","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prevalence Studies of Sporadic Inclusion Body Myositis","volume":"4","author":"Callan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuromuscul. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.21386","article-title":"Sarcoplasmic Redistribution of Nuclear TDP-43 in Inclusion Body Myositis","volume":"40","author":"Salajegheh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-016-0704-5","article-title":"Sarcopenia: An Overview","volume":"29","author":"Marzetti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-013-9583-2","article-title":"Satellite Cells in Human Skeletal Muscle; from Birth to Old Age","volume":"36","author":"Verdijk","year":"2014","journal-title":"AGE"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-019-09185-4","article-title":"A Systematic Review on the Definition of Rhabdomyolysis","volume":"267","author":"Stahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-2016","article-title":"Rhabdomyolysis","volume":"144","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0079-y","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"5","author":"Gilhus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-823912-4.00026-8","article-title":"Myasthenia Gravis-Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment","volume":"200","author":"Tannemaat","year":"2024","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(03)00585-4","article-title":"Dystrophin and Mutations: One Gene, Several Proteins, Multiple Phenotypes","volume":"2","author":"Muntoni","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071630","article-title":"Morphological Changes in Dystrophic Muscle","volume":"36","author":"Cullen","year":"1980","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5383","article-title":"Interactions between Reactive Oxygen Species Generated by Contractile Activity and Aging in Skeletal Muscle?","volume":"19","author":"Jackson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2003.09.012","article-title":"The Contribution of Reactive Oxygen Species to Sarcopenia and Muscle Ageing","volume":"39","author":"Fulle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2012.5149","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species in Inflammation and Tissue Injury","volume":"20","author":"Mittal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2013.05.001","article-title":"Wasting Mechanisms in Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"45","author":"Shin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s10974-015-9438-9","article-title":"The Role of Oxidative Stress in Skeletal Muscle Injury and Regeneration: Focus on Antioxidant Enzymes","volume":"36","author":"Kozakowska","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa473","article-title":"PKM2-Dependent Glycolysis Promotes Skeletal Muscle Cell Pyroptosis by Activating the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Dermatomyositis\/Polymyositis","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salucci, S., Bartoletti Stella, A., Battistelli, M., Burattini, S., Bavelloni, A., Cocco, L.I., Gobbi, P., and Faenza, I. (2021). How Inflammation Pathways Contribute to Cell Death in Neuro-Muscular Disorders. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11081109"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2016.03.002","article-title":"Cytokine Signaling in Skeletal Muscle Wasting","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marwarha, G., R\u00f8sand, \u00d8., Slagsvold, K.H., and H\u00f8ydal, M.A. (2022). GSK3\u03b2 Inhibition Is the Molecular Pivot That Underlies the Mir-210-Induced Attenuation of Intrinsic Apoptosis Cascade during Hypoxia. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23169375"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-020-00324-8","article-title":"Ferroptosis: Mechanisms, Biology and Role in Disease","volume":"22","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2022.01.012","article-title":"Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress Mediated Fe-Induced Ferroptosis via the NRF2-ARE Pathway","volume":"180","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00248.2021","article-title":"Diaphragm Muscle Fibrosis Involves Changes in Collagen Organization with Mechanical Implications in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"132","author":"Sahani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol. (1985)"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13395-025-00383-5","article-title":"GsMTx4-Blocked PIEZO1 Channel Promotes Myogenic Differentiation and Alleviates Myofiber Damage in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Skelet. Muscle"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Xu, Y.-Q., Long, Y.-Y., Xiao, H., Ma, Y.-Y., and Li, Y.-W. (2025). Mechanosensitive Channel Piezo1 in Calcium Dynamics: Structure, Function, and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies. Front. Mol. Biosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2025.1693456"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, A., Yi, J., Li, X., and Zhou, J. (2020). Physiological Ca2+ Transients versus Pathological Steady-State Ca2+ Elevation, Who Flips the ROS Coin in Skeletal Muscle Mitochondria. Front. Physiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.595800"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Angelo, D., Vecellio Reane, D., and Raffaello, A. (2023). Neither Too Much nor Too Little: Mitochondrial Calcium Concentration as a Balance between Physiological and Pathological Conditions. Front. Mol. Biosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2023.1336416"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1015","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00541.2024","article-title":"Role of TGF-\u03b2\/SMAD\/YAP\/TAZ Signaling in Skeletal Muscle Fibrosis","volume":"328","author":"Gallardo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44048","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-28960-0","article-title":"In Vitro Evaluation of Verteporfin and Exploration of TEAD Palmitoylation Inhibition in Piezo1-YAP\/TAZ Signaling and ECM Remodeling","volume":"15","author":"Xiaojun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1016\/S1357-2725(99)00063-1","article-title":"Apoptosis of Skeletal Muscles during Development and Disease","volume":"31","author":"Sandri","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bencze, M. (2022). Mechanisms of Myofibre Death in Muscular Dystrophies: The Emergence of the Regulated Forms of Necrosis in Myology. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010362"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-017-0012-4","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Death: Recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death 2018","volume":"25","author":"Galluzzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-019-0164-5","article-title":"The Molecular Machinery of Regulated Cell Death","volume":"29","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1097\/JES.0b013e318168e9dc","article-title":"Nuclear Apoptosis Contributes to Sarcopenia","volume":"36","author":"Alway","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1080\/01926230701320337","article-title":"Apoptosis: A Review of Programmed Cell Death","volume":"35","author":"Elmore","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2015.06.007","article-title":"Lifelong Wheel Running Exercise and Mild Caloric Restriction Attenuate Nuclear EndoG in the Aging Plantaris Muscle","volume":"69","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.14186","article-title":"Bax, Bak and beyond\u2014Mitochondrial Performance in Apoptosis","volume":"285","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavalcante, G.C., Schaan, A.P., Cabral, G.F., Santana-da-Silva, M.N., Pinto, P., Vidal, A.F., and Ribeiro-Dos-Santos, \u00c2 (2019). A Cell\u2019s Fate: An Overview of the Molecular Biology and Genetics of Apoptosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20174133"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00022.2018","article-title":"Fundamental Mechanisms of Regulated Cell Death and Implications for Heart Disease","volume":"99","author":"Amgalan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2015.04.002","article-title":"Programmed Cell Death in Aging","volume":"23","author":"Tower","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101207","article-title":"MicroRNA-434-3p Regulates Age-Related Apoptosis through eIF5A1 in the Skeletal Muscle","volume":"9","author":"Pardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.niox.2021.12.006","article-title":"GAPDH S-Nitrosation Contributes to Age-Related Sarcopenia through Mediating Apoptosis","volume":"120","author":"Xie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nitric Oxide"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e50705","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.50705","article-title":"Cardiac Mitochondrial Function Depends on BUD23 Mediated Ribosome Programming","volume":"9","author":"Baxter","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms11041509","article-title":"Oxidative Stress, Molecular Inflammation and Sarcopenia","volume":"11","author":"Meng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2014.1675","article-title":"Differential Expression of Apoptosis-Related Factors Induces the Age-Related Apoptosis of the Gracilis Muscle in Humans","volume":"33","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilchinskaya, N.A., Rozhkov, S.V., Turtikova, O.V., Mirzoev, T.M., and Shenkman, B.S. (2023). AMPK Phosphorylation Impacts Apoptosis in Differentiating Myoblasts Isolated from Atrophied Rat Soleus Muscle. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12060920"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-012-9751-7","article-title":"Atrogin-1, MuRF-1, and Sarcopenia","volume":"43","author":"Gumucio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00e4nzer, A., Rager, L., Dahlhaus, I., Dittmayer, C., Preusse, C., Della Marina, A., Goebel, H.-H., Hahn, A., and Stenzel, W. (2021). Morphological Characteristics of Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies in Juvenile Patients. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11010109"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410160206","article-title":"Monoclonal Antibody Analysis of Mononuclear Cells in Myopathies. I: Quantitation of Subsets According to Diagnosis and Sites of Accumulation and Demonstration and Counts of Muscle Fibers Invaded by T Cells","volume":"16","author":"Arahata","year":"1984","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2004.02.006","article-title":"119th ENMC International Workshop: Trial Design in Adult Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies, with the Exception of Inclusion Body Myositis, 10-12 October 2003, Naarden, the Netherlands","volume":"14","author":"Hoogendijk","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord. NMD"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danielsson, O., H\u00e4ggqvist, B., Gr\u00f6ntoft, L., \u00d6llinger, K., and Ernerudh, J. (2020). Apoptosis in Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies with Partial Invasion; a Role for CD8+ Cytotoxic T Cells?. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239176"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)07815-7","article-title":"The Muscular Dystrophies","volume":"359","author":"Emery","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.108.6.2197","article-title":"Apoptosis Precedes Necrosis of Dystrophin-Deficient Muscle","volume":"108","author":"Tidball","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"729","article-title":"Ultrastructural and Morphometrical Analysis of Apoptosis Stages in Cardiomyocytes of MDX Mice","volume":"43","author":"Komarov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Tsitologiia"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4212","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddv154","article-title":"Second-Generation Compound for the Modulation of Utrophin in the Therapy of DMD","volume":"24","author":"Guiraud","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3689","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21853-5","article-title":"Ablation of Bax and Bak Protects Skeletal Muscle against Pressure-Induced Injury","volume":"8","author":"Tam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, D.-S., Huang, Y.-W., Ho, C.-S., Hung, P.-L., Hsu, M.-H., Wang, T.-J., Wu, T.-Y., Lee, T.-H., Huang, Z.-D., and Chang, P.-C. (2019). Oxidative Insults and Mitochondrial DNA Mutation Promote Enhanced Autophagy and Mitophagy Compromising Cell Viability in Pluripotent Cell Model of Mitochondrial Disease. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8010065"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2008.2331","article-title":"Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Excitable Cells: Modulators of Mitochondrial and Cell Function","volume":"11","author":"Stowe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05292","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"443","author":"Lin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Dong, X., Wang, W., You, L., Yin, X., Yang, C., Sai, N., Leng, X., and Ni, J. (2018). Molecular Mechanisms of Apoptosis in HepaRG Cell Line Induced by Polyphyllin VI via the Fas Death Pathway and Mitochondrial-Dependent Pathway. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10050201"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2007.9.49","article-title":"Mechanisms of Cell Death in Oxidative Stress","volume":"9","author":"Ryter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1153777","DOI":"10.1080\/21675511.2016.1153777","article-title":"Dystrophin: The Dead Calm of a Dogma","volume":"4","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rare Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jelinkova, S., Fojtik, P., Kohutova, A., Vilotic, A., Markov\u00e1, L., Pesl, M., Jurakova, T., Kruta, M., Vrbsky, J., and Gaillyova, R. (2019). Dystrophin Deficiency Leads to Genomic Instability in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells via NO Synthase-Induced Oxidative Stress. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8010053"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2016.02.029","article-title":"TGF-\u03921 Activates the Canonical NF-\u03baB Signaling to Promote Cell Survival and Proliferation in Dystrophic Muscle Fibroblasts in Vitro","volume":"471","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"4127213","article-title":"Late-Onset Pompe Disease with Nemaline Bodies","volume":"2018","author":"Frezza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Case Rep. Neurol. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00075.2016","article-title":"Transcriptome Assessment of the Pompe (Gaa-\/-) Mouse Spinal Cord Indicates Widespread Neuropathology","volume":"48","author":"Turner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Genom."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Zhang, B. (2017). Role and Mechanism of Autophagy and Apoptosis in the Pathogenesis of Late-Onset Pompe Disease. [Ph.D. Thesis, Shandong University]."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.153.5.999","article-title":"Cathepsin B Acts as a Dominant Execution Protease in Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by Tumor Necrosis Factor","volume":"153","author":"Foghsgaard","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nesci, S., Trombetti, F., Pagliarani, A., Ventrella, V., Algieri, C., Tioli, G., and Lenaz, G. (2021). Molecular and Supramolecular Structure of the Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation System: Implications for Pathology. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11030242"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.192.7.1001","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Induced ROS Release: A New Phenomenon Accompanying Induction of the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition in Cardiac Myocytes","volume":"192","author":"Zorov","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00026.2013","article-title":"Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and ROS-Induced ROS Release","volume":"94","author":"Zorov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1432-1327.1998.2580729.x","article-title":"Cyclophilin-D Binds Strongly to Complexes of the Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel and the Adenine Nucleotide Translocase to Form the Permeability Transition Pore","volume":"258","author":"Crompton","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-023-00629-4","article-title":"Mechanisms of BCL-2 Family Proteins in Mitochondrial Apoptosis","volume":"24","author":"Czabotar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-199807130-00050","article-title":"Apoptosis in Metabolic Myopathies","volume":"9","author":"Monici","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl061","article-title":"Apoptosis in Mitochondrial Myopathies Is Linked to Mitochondrial Proliferation","volume":"129","author":"Fayet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70385","DOI":"10.1002\/ctm2.70385","article-title":"OXA1L Deficiency Causes Mitochondrial Myopathy via Reactive Oxygen Species Regulated Nuclear Factor Kappa B Signalling Pathway","volume":"15","author":"Zhan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410390414","article-title":"Upregulation of Bcl-2 Protein in the Myasthenic Thymus","volume":"39","author":"Onodera","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(94)90103-1","article-title":"Reduced Expression of Apoptosis-Related Antigens in Thymuses from Patients with Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"39","author":"Masunaga","year":"1994","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E294","DOI":"10.25011\/cim.v35i5.18702","article-title":"Up-Regulated Expression of Fas Antigen in Peripheral T Cell Subsets in Patients with Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"35","author":"Mai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"2206","article-title":"Inhibition of cFLIP Overcomes Acquired Resistance to Sorafenib via Reducing ER Stress-related Autophagy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2011.08.004","article-title":"Necroptosis: An Emerging Form of Programmed Cell Death","volume":"82","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e124","DOI":"10.1038\/cti.2016.83","article-title":"Caspase-8: Not so Silently Deadly","volume":"6","author":"Feltham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2015.tb00638.x","article-title":"The Dystrophin Complex: Structure, Function, and Implications for Therapy","volume":"5","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06057-9","article-title":"Necroptosis Mediates Myofibre Death in Dystrophin-Deficient Mice","volume":"9","author":"Morgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.11.031","article-title":"Mixed Lineage Kinase Domain-like Protein Mediates Necrosis Signaling Downstream of RIP3 Kinase","volume":"148","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27875-4","article-title":"Targeting Necroptosis in Muscle Fibers Ameliorates Inflammatory Myopathies","volume":"13","author":"Kamiya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/118.5.959","article-title":"Visualization of Dystrophic Muscle Fibers in Mdx Mouse by Vital Staining with Evans Blue: Evidence of Apoptosis in Dystrophin-Deficient Muscle","volume":"118","author":"Matsuda","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"1005","article-title":"Apoptotic Myonuclei in Human Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"78","author":"Sandri","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lab. Investig. A J. Tech. Methods Pathol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI26390","article-title":"Autophagy in Cell Death: An Innocent Convict?","volume":"115","author":"Levine","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1099993","article-title":"Autophagy in Health and Disease: A Double-Edged Sword","volume":"306","author":"Shintani","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2009.11.014","article-title":"Mammalian Autophagy: Core Molecular Machinery and Signaling Regulation","volume":"22","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20364","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1319661110","article-title":"Autosis Is a Na+,K+-ATPase-Regulated Form of Cell Death Triggered by Autophagy-Inducing Peptides, Starvation, and Hypoxia-Ischemia","volume":"110","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0162-7","article-title":"Disruption of the Beclin 1-BCL2 Autophagy Regulatory Complex Promotes Longevity in Mice","volume":"558","author":"Sebti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/path.2697","article-title":"Autophagy: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms","volume":"221","author":"Glick","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2152","article-title":"AMPK and mTOR Regulate Autophagy through Direct Phosphorylation of Ulk1","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2007.11.001","article-title":"FoxO3 Controls Autophagy in Skeletal Muscle in Vivo","volume":"6","author":"Mammucari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2007.11.004","article-title":"FoxO3 Coordinately Activates Protein Degradation by the Autophagic\/Lysosomal and Proteasomal Pathways in Atrophying Muscle Cells","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11818","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30365-1","article-title":"Exercise Prevents Impaired Autophagy and Proteostasis in a Model of Neurogenic Myopathy","volume":"8","author":"Campos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2009.10.008","article-title":"Autophagy Is Required to Maintain Muscle Mass","volume":"10","author":"Masiero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9062","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-27429-7","article-title":"Attenuation of Autophagy Impacts on Muscle Fibre Development, Starvation Induced Stress and Fibre Regeneration Following Acute Injury","volume":"8","author":"Paolini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e418","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2012.159","article-title":"Autophagy as a New Therapeutic Target in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"3","author":"Morisi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12943","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.12943","article-title":"mTORC1 Underlies Age-related Muscle Fiber Damage and Loss by Inducing Oxidative Stress and Catabolism","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.05.016","article-title":"AMPK Activation of Muscle Autophagy Prevents Fasting-Induced Hypoglycemia and Myopathy during Aging","volume":"21","author":"Bujak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.8.10.8498","article-title":"Stimulation of Autophagy by the P53 Target Gene Sestrin2","volume":"8","author":"Maiuri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.36184","article-title":"Dysregulated Autophagy in the RPE Is Associated with Increased Susceptibility to Oxidative Stress and AMD","volume":"10","author":"Mitter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-015-0166-x","article-title":"ROS and Autophagy: Interactions and Molecular Regulatory Mechanisms","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19086","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.273.30.19086","article-title":"Targeted Disruption of the Acid Alpha-Glucosidase Gene in Mice Causes an Illness with Critical Features of Both Infantile and Adult Human Glycogen Storage Disease Type II","volume":"273","author":"Raben","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.6.8.13378","article-title":"Suppression of Autophagy Permits Successful Enzyme Replacement Therapy in a Lysosomal Storage Disorder--Murine Pompe Disease","volume":"6","author":"Raben","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2402817121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2402817121","article-title":"Decoding the Molecular Mechanism of Selective Autophagy of Glycogen Mediated by Autophagy Receptor STBD1","volume":"121","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymgme.2013.05.004","article-title":"Stbd1 Is Highly Elevated in Skeletal Muscle of Pompe Disease Mice but Suppression of Its Expression Does Not Affect Lysosomal Glycogen Accumulation","volume":"109","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Metab."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25464","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M703663200","article-title":"siRNA Screening of the Kinome Identifies ULK1 as a Multidomain Modulator of Autophagy","volume":"282","author":"Chan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.2984","article-title":"Autophagy and Lysosomes in Pompe Disease","volume":"2","author":"Fukuda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1698","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2012.52","article-title":"The Role of Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of Glycogen Storage Disease Type II (GSDII)","volume":"19","author":"Nascimbeni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2021.12.017","article-title":"Mosaic Dysfunction of Mitophagy in Mitochondrial Muscle Disease","volume":"34","author":"Mito","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-015-0398-y","article-title":"Current Treatment, Emerging Translational Therapies, and New Therapeutic Targets for Autoimmune Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"13","author":"Guptill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1080\/00207454.2020.1738429","article-title":"Autophagy-Deficiency in Bone Marrow Mononuclear Cells from Patients with Myasthenia Gravis: A Possible Mechanism of Pathogenesis","volume":"131","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2008.11.015","article-title":"The Role of FoxP3+ CD4+ CD25hi Tregs in the Pathogenesis of Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1586\/1744666X.2015.1047345","article-title":"The Role of T Regulatory Cells in Immunopathogenesis of Myasthenia Gravis: Implications for Therapeutics","volume":"11","author":"Kasapoglu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, N., Yuan, J., Karim, M.R., Zhong, P., Sun, Y.-P., Zhang, H.-Y., and Wang, Y.-F. (2020). Effects of Mitophagy on Regulatory T Cell Function in Patients with Myasthenia Gravis. Front. Neurol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00238"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2024.2315893","article-title":"Defective Autophagy and Autophagy Activators in Myasthenia Gravis: A Rare Entity and Unusual Scenario","volume":"20","author":"Sulaiman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5868","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.102176","article-title":"Rapamycin Protects Aging Muscle","volume":"11","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.002","article-title":"Structural Mechanism for GSDMD Targeting by Autoprocessed Caspases in Pyroptosis","volume":"180","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15541","article-title":"Caspase-11 Cleaves Gasdermin D for Non-Canonical Inflammasome Signalling","volume":"526","author":"Kayagaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2016.10.004","article-title":"Pyroptosis: Gasdermin-Mediated Programmed Necrotic Cell Death","volume":"42","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.05.020","article-title":"Caspases in Cell Death, Inflammation, and Disease","volume":"50","author":"Lamkanfi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.11.047","article-title":"Roles of Caspases in Necrotic Cell Death","volume":"167","author":"Yuan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2237","article-title":"Regulation of Inflammasome Signaling","volume":"13","author":"Rathinam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2023.04.030","article-title":"Extracellular Matrix-Derived Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMP): Implications in Systemic Sclerosis and Fibrosis","volume":"143","author":"Bale","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2017.11.013","article-title":"The Pore-Forming Protein Gasdermin D Regulates Interleukin-1 Secretion from Living Macrophages","volume":"48","author":"Evavold","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.07.027","article-title":"Interleukin-1\u03b2 Maturation Triggers Its Relocation to the Plasma Membrane for Gasdermin-D-Dependent and -Independent Secretion","volume":"24","author":"Monteleone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13672","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.13672","article-title":"NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Altered Mitophagy Are Key Pathways in Inclusion Body Myositis","volume":"16","author":"Naddaf","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-023-01365-6","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1 Contributes to Sarcopenia through Caspase-8\/Caspase-3\/GSDME-Mediated Pyroptosis","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12926","article-title":"Combined Training Improves the Diagnostic Measures of Sarcopenia and Decreases the Inflammation in HIV-infected Individuals","volume":"13","author":"Ghayomzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08022-7","article-title":"Gasdermin D-Mediated Metabolic Crosstalk Promotes Tissue Repair","volume":"634","author":"Chi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-017-2964-z","article-title":"Negative Impact of High Cumulative Glucocorticoid Dose on Bone Metabolism of Patients with Myasthenia Gravis","volume":"38","author":"Braz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Wang, S., Liu, Y., and Zhang, Y. (2023). Serum Pentaxin 3 (PTX3) Promotes NLRP3 Inflammasome and Pyroptosis in Patients with up-Regulated Myasthenia Gravis. Front. Biosci., 28.","DOI":"10.31083\/j.fbl2811306"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e198076","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI198076","article-title":"GSDME\/IL-18 Pyroptotic Axis Prevents Myosteatosis by Expanding Tissue-Resident Macrophages to Promote Muscle Regeneration","volume":"136","author":"Cao","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2015.158","article-title":"Ferroptosis: Process and Function","volume":"23","author":"Xie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"(2026, April 12). Ferroptosis in a Sarcopenia Model of Senescence Accelerated Mouse Prone 8 (SAMP8)\u2014PubMed, Available online: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/33390840\/."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12700","article-title":"Transferrin Receptor 1 Ablation in Satellite Cells Impedes Skeletal Muscle Regeneration through Activation of Ferroptosis\u2014PMC","volume":"12","author":"Ding","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12950","article-title":"Iron Overload and Impaired Iron Handling Contribute to the Dystrophic Pathology in Models of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"13","author":"Alves","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merckx, C., and De Paepe, B. (2022). The Role of Taurine in Skeletal Muscle Functioning and Its Potential as a Supportive Treatment for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12020193"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2790","article-title":"Role of Telomere Dysfunction in Cardiac Failure in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"15","author":"Mourkioti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1736","article-title":"Genetic and Pharmacologic Inhibition of Mitochondrial-Dependent Necrosis Attenuates Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"14","author":"Millay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.1416","article-title":"The Role of Iron and Reactive Oxygen Species in Cell Death","volume":"10","author":"Dixon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1139\/o90-146","article-title":"Biochemical Aspects of Free Radicals","volume":"68","author":"Basaga","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Q., Qu, H., Chen, Y., Luo, X., Chen, C., Xiao, B., Ding, X., Zhao, P., Lu, Y., and Chen, A.F. (2022). Atorvastatin Induces Mitochondria-Dependent Ferroptosis via the Modulation of Nrf2-xCT\/GPx4 Axis. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.806081"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1810762","article-title":"Heatstroke","volume":"380","author":"Epstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1400-9754","article-title":"The Role of Skeletal Muscles in Exertional Heat Stroke Pathophysiology","volume":"42","author":"Laitano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12953","article-title":"ACSL4 Contributes to Ferroptosis-Mediated Rhabdomyolysis in Exertional Heat Stroke","volume":"13","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2021.07.025","article-title":"Iron Deficiency Exacerbates Cisplatin- or Rhabdomyolysis-Induced Acute Kidney Injury through Promoting Iron-Catalyzed Oxidative Damage","volume":"173","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8961","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201900077R","article-title":"Curcumin Reduces Renal Damage Associated with Rhabdomyolysis by Decreasing Ferroptosis-Mediated Cell Death","volume":"33","author":"Herencia","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf0529","article-title":"Copper Induces Cell Death by Targeting Lipoylated TCA Cycle Proteins","volume":"375","author":"Tsvetkov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Chen, X., Geng, S., Li, Q., Li, Y., Yuan, H., and Jiang, H. (2023). Identification of the Cuproptosis-Related Hub Genes and Therapeutic Agents for Sarcopenia. Front. Genet., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2023.1136763"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiang, Z., Mei, H., Wang, H., Yao, X., Rao, J., Zhang, W., Xu, A., and Lu, L. (2025). Cuproptosis and Its Potential Role in Musculoskeletal Disease. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2025.1570131"},{"key":"ref_183","first-page":"163","article-title":"Research Progress on Copper Metabolism Disorder-Mediated Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Complicated with Sarcopenia","volume":"55","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Physiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-023-01091-2","article-title":"Actin Cytoskeleton Vulnerability to Disulfide Stress Mediates Disulfidptosis","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10495-024-01989-8","article-title":"Disulfidptosis: A New Type of Cell Death","volume":"29","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Apoptosis"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29650","article-title":"A New Gene Signature Associated with Disulfidptosis That Forecasts Myasthenia Gravis and Suggests Infiltration of Immune Microenvironment in Thymoma Patients","volume":"10","author":"Pan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e162","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.162","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Target of NETosis in Diseases","volume":"3","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Medcomm"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.5114\/ceji.2014.42136","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Physiology and Pathology","volume":"39","author":"Manda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cent. Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, M., Zhao, H., Huang, C., Cai, H., and Mo, S. (2025). Comprehensive Profiling of Chemokine and NETosis-Associated Genes in Sarcopenia: Construction of a Machine Learning-Based Diagnostic Nomogram. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1606430"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-02948-2","article-title":"Acyl-CoA Thioesterase 1 Prevents Cardiomyocytes from Doxorubicin-Induced Ferroptosis via Shaping the Lipid Composition","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_191","first-page":"602","article-title":"Experimental study on losartan decreasing denervated skeletal muscle atrophy through reducing cell apoptosis","volume":"22","author":"Tian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chin. J. Reparative Reconstr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e371","DOI":"10.1038\/oncsis.2017.65","article-title":"Nrf2-Keap1 Pathway Promotes Cell Proliferation and Diminishes Ferroptosis","volume":"6","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncogenesis"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13046","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.15905","article-title":"Activating Nrf2 Signalling Alleviates Osteoarthritis Development by Inhibiting Inflammasome Activation","volume":"24","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2024.0083","article-title":"Disulfidptosis, a Novel Cell Death Pathway: Molecular Landscape and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"16","author":"Gu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2024.11.003","article-title":"Platelets Accelerate Lipid Peroxidation and Induce Pathogenic Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Release","volume":"31","author":"Ono","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1038\/s43587-025-00907-0","article-title":"Senescent Macrophages Induce Ferroptosis in Skeletal Muscle and Accelerate Osteoarthritis-Related Muscle Atrophy","volume":"5","author":"Xiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Aging"}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/9\/744\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T12:10:55Z","timestamp":1776859855000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/9\/744"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]},"references-count":196,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["cells15090744"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells15090744","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]}}}