{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T04:27:22Z","timestamp":1791433642113,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"VA"},{"name":"NIH","award":["R21 AI150334"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI150334"]}]},{"award":["R21 AI150334"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI150334"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/044zkrt47","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ruth and Fred Kunnes Fund"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Protein\u2013protein interactions (PPIs) are fundamental to viral replication, regulating processes such as assembly, genome packaging, and virion maturation. Despite their biological importance, these interactions remain challenging to study and are relatively underexploited as therapeutic targets. Split reporter systems, based on protein-fragment complementation, provide quantitative platforms to measure PPIs by reconstituting reporter activity when interacting protein partners are brought into proximity. These systems can be applied in vitro and in live cells which enables detection of dynamic and multimeric interactions in physiologically relevant contexts. Major classes of split reporter systems include \u03b2-lactamase, alkaline phosphatase, luciferase-based platforms, green fluorescent protein, and horseradish peroxidase. Assay performance depends on factors such as fusion protein stability, expression levels, and reporter kinetics, which influence sensitivity, dynamic range, and reliability. These approaches have been applied to study viral protein interactions across diverse systems, including HIV-1 matrix and nucleocapsid proteins, flaviviral capsid proteins, hepatitis B virus core protein, and chikungunya virus capsid. Split reporter assays also enable high-throughput screening for small-molecule inhibitors that disrupt viral PPIs and multimerization. This provides a functional readout linked to viral replication. Despite the challenges that exist in assay optimization and protein stability, the sensitivity and versatility of these systems provide a framework to interrogate viral protein interactions and support the development of antiviral therapeutics.:<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15100930","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T08:06:26Z","timestamp":1779696386000},"page":"930","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Split Reporter Systems in Viral Protein\u2013Protein Interactions and Multimerization: Mechanisms and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7895-7026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haseeb","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3677-6591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faizan","family":"Masood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2341-0974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uzair","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8253-530X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Shaltout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4944-0819","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunus","family":"Yukselten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard E.","family":"Sutton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2833","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200700131","article-title":"Methods for the detection and analysis of protein\u2013protein interactions","volume":"7","author":"Linse","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2014.09.001","article-title":"Small-Molecule Inhibitors of Protein-Protein Interactions: Progressing toward the Reality","volume":"21","author":"Arkin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. 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