{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T21:20:30Z","timestamp":1791408030909,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":296,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glioblastoma is the most aggressive form of brain tumor resulting in low overall patient survival rates of 12\u201315 months post diagnosis. Several factors contribute to the complexity of the tumor, including tumor heterogeneity, blood\u2013brain barrier complications, genetic defects, cancer stem cell generation, and immune evasion. These factors can result in the progression of glioblastoma and are controlled by signaling pathways. Some of the signaling pathways involved in glioblastoma progression include ERK, NF-\u03baB, Wnt, and PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR. Our and others\u2019 previous studies have found that TIM-3 and TGF-\u03b2 signaling is altered in glioblastoma patients and may contribute to cancer progression. Immune promoting pathways such as STING have also been studied in glioblastoma to enhance anti-tumor immunity; however the interconnecting roles of these pathways are not well described. This review highlights the role of these three key cancer-related pathways in glioblastoma and their mechanistic link. Better understanding these links may result in improved treatment targets or disease progression biomarkers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15110991","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T09:57:43Z","timestamp":1779962263000},"page":"991","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Signaling Networks of TIM-3, TGF-\u03b2, and STING in Glioblastoma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Farah","family":"Ahmady-Nield","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Blaine M. H.","family":"Carnie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace E. C.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emerson","family":"Achari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2216-5389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amit","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Integrated Oncology, Center for Integrated Oncology (CIO) Bonn, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3640-2338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrian A.","family":"Achuthan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6880-9795","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Kannourakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodney B.","family":"Luwor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC 3350, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia"},{"name":"Huagene Institute, Kecheng Science and Technology Park, Pukou District, Nanjing 211806, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2683","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.1596707","article-title":"Malignant astrocytic glioma: Genetics, biology, and paths to treatment","volume":"21","author":"Furnari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1623534","article-title":"New Directions in the Treatment of Glioblastoma","volume":"38","author":"Reitman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin. 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