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Like ubiquitin, they function as protein modifiers, catalyzing modifications through a conserved enzymatic cascade of E1 activating enzymes, E2 conjugating enzymes, and E3 ligases. In doing so, UBLs regulate a diverse set of cellular processes, including stress response, antiviral activity, nuclear transport, cancer development, and autophagy. In recent years, the roles of UBLs during pathogenic bacteria infection have gained attention, although much still remains elusive. This review describes current findings related to UBL systems in the context of pathogenic bacteria infection, focusing on NEDD8, ISG15, FAT10, and UFM1. Specifically, we look at how the host UBL system responds to bacterial infection by inducing the host\u2019s defense system, and how pathogenic bacteria manipulate the host UBL system to ensure successful infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15121060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T09:25:17Z","timestamp":1781083517000},"page":"1060","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Molecular Functions of Ubiquitin-like Modifiers in Bacterial Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4762-8578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tohru","family":"Tezuka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4477-9822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei Jie Nicholas","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2387-2415","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keisuke","family":"Kitahata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aya","family":"Nohara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3458-8418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sun Joo","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8536-8653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minsoo","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Molecular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02759","article-title":"The challenge of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases","volume":"430","author":"Morens","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(13)70318-9","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions","volume":"13","author":"Laxminarayan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. 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