{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T04:29:40Z","timestamp":1787632180466,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":248,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Doris L. Hastings Foundation"},{"name":"Leonard and Norma Klorfine Foundation"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04hmz3b15","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Sydney and Elizabeth Ross Family Foundation"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001818","name":"Research to Prevent Blindness","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04drjs621","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adult optic nerve axon regeneration has traditionally been framed as a problem of limited intrinsic growth capacity in central nervous system neurons. However, growing evidence suggests that intrinsic factors alone cannot account for regenerative failure: restrictive extrinsic environmental factors largely govern optic nerve regeneration, dictating the intrinsic capacity axons can express. In this review, we frame the extrinsic optic nerve environment as a dynamic regenerative niche, in which vascular, immune, glial, matrix, and metabolic compartments are spatially co-localized and temporally coordinated rather than acting as independent barriers. These compartments follow a shared trajectory, broadly protective in the acute phase, then inhibitory once the underlying response fails to resolve, while also actively driving one another, such as reactive astrocytes promoting the matrix remodeling that subsequently restricts axon regrowth. Consequently, the niche\u2019s overall permissiveness for regeneration reflects the aggregate and interdependent state of these compartments rather than the action of any single barrier. This review integrates current evidence on extrinsic barriers, intervention opportunities, and disease-specific variability relevant to RGC axon regeneration after injury. These interventions must incorporate the spatial, temporal, and metabolic factors that shape the goal of functional recovery and vision restoration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15171510","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T08:03:41Z","timestamp":1787558621000},"page":"1510","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Extrinsic Regulation of Optic Nerve Axon Regeneration in the Adult Central Nervous System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2688-9719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arissa","family":"Adhikary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Miami Integrative Metabolomics Research Center, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7171-1308","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily","family":"Dorairaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ 85259, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Arshavsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL 33314, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shanti","family":"Ramcharan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krishna S.","family":"Kishor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3759-647X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanjoy K.","family":"Bhattacharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.14259","article-title":"Optic nerve diseases and regeneration: How far are we from the promised land?","volume":"51","author":"Cen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. 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