{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T09:23:22Z","timestamp":1788341002753,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is an evolving biofabrication approach in regenerative medicine with the potential to overcome many limitations of conventional reconstructive techniques, including donor-site morbidity, limited tissue availability, and suboptimal restoration of form and function. Recent advances in biofabrication have accelerated the development of patient-specific living constructs for reconstructive applications. This narrative review synthesizes contemporary evidence on the use of 3D bioprinting in reconstructive surgery, emphasizing developments most relevant to plastic surgery. The current literature on bioprinting technologies, bioinks, tissue-specific applications, translational studies, and regulatory considerations was critically reviewed. Significant progress has been achieved in the bioprinting of skin, cartilage, bone, osteochondral tissues, vascularized constructs, and composite craniofacial tissues. Advances in extrusion-, inkjet-, laser-, and stereolithography-based printing, together with increasingly sophisticated natural and synthetic bioinks, have improved construct fidelity, cellular viability, and tissue-specific functionality. In situ bioprinting, patient-specific computer-aided design, and hybrid biomaterial strategies have further expanded the clinical potential of bioprinted tissues. Despite these advances, major barriers remain, including inadequate vascularization of large constructs, limited mechanical maturation of load-bearing tissues, manufacturing standardization, regulatory uncertainty, and the absence of robust long-term clinical outcomes. Three-dimensional bioprinting is enabling increasingly personalized tissue fabrication, although most applications remain preclinical. Clinical translation will require further advances in biomaterials, vascular engineering, manufacturing standardization, and regulatory science.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15171595","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T08:56:01Z","timestamp":1788339361000},"page":"1595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Three-Dimensional Bioprinting in Reconstructive Plastic Surgery: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9304-9916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahim","family":"Hirani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5563-007X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarina","family":"Iraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1355-9479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathew","family":"Trandafirescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1421-6852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carter J.","family":"Boyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hansj\u00f6rg Wyss Department of Plastic Surgery, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8086-3986","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mill","family":"Etienne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjoms.2011.11.022","article-title":"Recent advances in reconstructive oral and maxillofacial surgery","volume":"50","author":"Balasundaram","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5043518","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5043518","article-title":"A Multicentre Study: The Use of Micrografts in the Reconstruction of Full-Thickness Posttraumatic Skin Defects of the Limbs\u2014A Whole Innovative Concept in Regenerative Surgery","volume":"2019","author":"Riccio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5e","DOI":"10.1097\/PRS.0b013e3181fad46c","article-title":"Skin grafts and local flaps","volume":"127","author":"Hallock","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plast. Reconstr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2026.103788","article-title":"Global inequities in organ transplantation, 2008\u20132023: Trends, unmet need, and policy implications","volume":"92","author":"Hao","year":"2026","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e655","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000005657","article-title":"Organ Donation and Transplantation Worldwide: The Global Observatory on Donation and Transplantation 2024 Report","volume":"110","author":"Martin","year":"2026","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, P.K., Alsaidan, O.A., Altemani, F.H., Alsenani, F., Aodah, A., Almalki, W.H., Almujri, S.S., Alrobaian, M., Sahoo, A., and Rahman, M. (2026). Advancing Regenerative Medicine with 3D Bioprinting: Techniques, Biomaterials, and Clinical Applications. Curr. Med. Chem., 33.","DOI":"10.2174\/0109298673445024260412125122"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2958","article-title":"3D bioprinting of tissues and organs","volume":"32","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2019.119536","article-title":"Progress in 3D bioprinting technology for tissue\/organ regenerative engineering","volume":"226","author":"Matai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2022.121639","article-title":"Advances in 3D bioprinting of tissues\/organs for regenerative medicine and in-vitro models","volume":"287","author":"Jain","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5385","DOI":"10.1039\/D1TB00172H","article-title":"Applications of 3D bioprinting in tissue engineering: Advantages, deficiencies, improvements, and future perspectives","volume":"9","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dental.2021.12.141","article-title":"Three-dimensional printing of clinical scale and personalized calcium phosphate scaffolds for alveolar bone reconstruction","volume":"38","author":"Anderson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dent. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1097\/SCS.0000000000009113","article-title":"Preliminary Application Research of 3D Bioprinting in Craniofacial Reconstruction","volume":"34","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Craniofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"ClinicalTrials.gov (2026, August 24). AuriNovo for Auricular Reconstruction. NCT04399239. Last Update Posted 4 March 2024, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04399239."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49135","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c10385","article-title":"NIR-responsive deployable and self-fitting 4D-printed bone tissue scaffold","volume":"16","author":"Choudhury","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1097\/DSS.0000000000002378","article-title":"A Review of 3-Dimensional Skin Bioprinting Techniques: Applications, Approaches, and Trends","volume":"46","author":"Ishack","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dermatol. Surg."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010858","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202010858","article-title":"Intra-Operative Bioprinting of Hard, Soft, and Hard\/Soft Composite Tissues for Craniomaxillofacial Reconstruction","volume":"31","author":"Moncal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518179","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S518179","article-title":"Advances and Challenges in 3D Bioprinting of Cartilage Organoids: From Material Innovation to Functional Regeneration","volume":"21","author":"Han","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024103","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/acb6b8","article-title":"3D bioprinting of dECM\/Gel\/QCS\/nHAp hybrid scaffolds laden with mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes to improve angiogenesis and osteogenesis","volume":"15","author":"Kang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.119469","article-title":"3D bioprinted gelatin\/gellan gum-based scaffold with double-crosslinking network for vascularized bone regeneration","volume":"290","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-025-01498-y","article-title":"Advances in 3D bioprinting for medical application: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"25","author":"Kazemi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2025.10.010","article-title":"Bioprinting for craniofacial reconstruction: A review of advancements, clinical use, and challenges","volume":"53","author":"Najafi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Craniomaxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042003","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ade47a","article-title":"3D bioprinting in tissue engineering: Current state-of-the-art and challenges towards system standardization and clinical translation","volume":"17","author":"Agarwal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadf7547","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adf7547","article-title":"Multicellular bioprinted skin facilitates human-like skin architecture in vivo","volume":"15","author":"Jorgensen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.114140","article-title":"Robot-assisted in situ bioprinting of gelatin methacrylate hydrogels with stem cells induces hair follicle-inclusive skin regeneration","volume":"158","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.28588","article-title":"Bioprinted dermis with human adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments promotes wound healing","volume":"121","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.07.012","article-title":"Three-dimensional bioprinting of a full-thickness functional skin model using acellular dermal matrix and gelatin methacrylamide bioink","volume":"131","author":"Jin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.148403","article-title":"Digital light processing 3D bioprinting of collagen-based gradient osteochondral scaffold for cartilage-bone regeneration","volume":"331","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.07.037","article-title":"3D bioprinting of cartilaginous templates for large bone defect healing","volume":"156","author":"Pitacco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123406","article-title":"A stiff bioink for hybrid bioprinting of vascularized bone tissue with enhanced mechanical properties","volume":"322","author":"Machour","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2203464","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202203464","article-title":"Thermo-Responsive Nanocomposite Bioink with Growth-Factor Holding and its Application to Bone Regeneration","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04181","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202504181","article-title":"3D Bioprinting of Giant Salamander Mucin-Based Bioink for Enhanced Bone Regeneration","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2500365","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202500365","article-title":"Extrusion-Based 3D Bioprinted Gellan Gum\/Poly(vinyl alcohol)\/Nano-Hydroxyapatite Composite Bioinks Promote Bone Regeneration","volume":"14","author":"Loukelis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43492","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c08550","article-title":"Engineering Highly Vascularized Bone Tissues by 3D Bioprinting of Granular Prevascularized Spheroids","volume":"15","author":"Fang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123711","article-title":"Coupling intraoperative bioprinting and surgical micropuncture for synergistic scaffold vascularization","volume":"326","author":"Yeo","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3150","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.27838","article-title":"3D bioprinting and microscale organization of vascularized tissue constructs using collagen-based bioink","volume":"118","author":"Muthusamy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3357","article-title":"Rapid casting of patterned vascular networks for perfusable engineered three-dimensional tissues","volume":"11","author":"Miller","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1039\/C7BM00765E","article-title":"Bioinks for 3D bioprinting: An overview","volume":"6","author":"Inci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-014-1207-1","article-title":"Biomaterials for integration with 3-D bioprinting","volume":"43","author":"Skardal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045002","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/8\/4\/045002","article-title":"A comparison of different bioinks for 3D bioprinting of fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage","volume":"8","author":"Daly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3935","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4935","article-title":"Printing three-dimensional tissue analogues with decellularized extracellular matrix bioink","volume":"5","author":"Pati","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701021","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201701021","article-title":"Fast Setting Silk Fibroin Bioink for Bioprinting of Patient-Specific Memory-Shape Implants","volume":"6","author":"Costa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2017.08.005","article-title":"The bio in the ink: Cartilage regeneration with bioprintable hydrogels and articular cartilage-derived progenitor cells","volume":"61","author":"Levato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-38366-w","article-title":"In Situ Bioprinting of Autologous Skin Cells Accelerates Wound Healing of Extensive Excisional Full-Thickness Wounds","volume":"9","author":"Albanna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poldervaart, M.T., Wang, H., van der Stok, J., Weinans, H., Leeuwenburgh, S.C., \u00d6ner, F.C., Dhert, W.J., and Alblas, J. (2013). Sustained release of BMP-2 in bioprinted alginate for osteogenicity in mice and rats. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0072610"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6919","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.5b02859","article-title":"Peptide bioink: Self-assembling nanofibrous scaffolds for three-dimensional organotypic cultures","volume":"15","author":"Loo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4706","DOI":"10.1039\/D5BM00166H","article-title":"4D-printed multifunctional hydrogels as flexible strain sensors and nerve conduits","volume":"13","author":"Joshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1801076","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201801076","article-title":"Jammed microgel inks for 3D printing applications","volume":"6","author":"Highley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201500677","article-title":"Controlling shear stress in 3D bioprinting is a key factor to balance printing resolution and stem cell integrity","volume":"5","author":"Blaeser","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10303","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10303","article-title":"Adaptive multi-degree-of-freedom in situ bioprinting robot for hair-follicle-inclusive skin repair: A preliminary study conducted in mice","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioeng. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2019.0319","article-title":"Bioprinted Skin Recapitulates Normal Collagen Remodeling in Full-Thickness Wounds","volume":"26","author":"Jorgensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part A"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015006","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/9\/1\/015006","article-title":"3D bioprinting of functional human skin: Production and in vivo analysis","volume":"9","author":"Cubo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.5966\/sctm.2012-0088","article-title":"Bioprinted amniotic fluid-derived stem cells accelerate healing of large skin wounds","volume":"1","author":"Skardal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.24455","article-title":"Skin tissue generation by laser cell printing","volume":"109","author":"Koch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2019.0201","article-title":"Three Dimensional Bioprinting of a Vascularized and Perfusable Skin Graft Using Human Keratinocytes, Fibroblasts, Pericytes, and Endothelial Cells","volume":"26","author":"Baltazar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part A"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadg0297","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adg0297","article-title":"Incorporation of hair follicles in 3D bioprinted models of human skin","volume":"9","author":"Dechiario","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s41038-019-0142-7","article-title":"Skin bioprinting: The future of burn wound reconstruction?","volume":"7","author":"Varkey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Burns Trauma"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"rbac105","DOI":"10.1093\/rb\/rbac105","article-title":"Advances in 3D skin bioprinting for wound healing and disease modeling","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Regen. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4056","DOI":"10.1097\/GOX.0000000000004056","article-title":"A Preliminary Study for an Intraoperative 3D Bioprinting Treatment of Severe Burn Injuries","volume":"10","author":"Albouy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plast. Reconstr. Surg. Glob. Open"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-00690-y","article-title":"Cartilage Tissue Engineering by the 3D Bioprinting of iPS Cells in a Nanocellulose\/Alginate Bioink","volume":"7","author":"Nguyen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2018.12.028","article-title":"Biofabrication of spatially organised tissues by directing the growth of cellular spheroids within 3D printed polymeric microchambers","volume":"197","author":"Daly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaay1422","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aay1422","article-title":"3D bioprinting dual-factor releasing and gradient-structured constructs ready to implant for anisotropic cartilage regeneration","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2020.11.029","article-title":"A photo-crosslinkable cartilage-derived extracellular matrix bioink for auricular cartilage tissue engineering","volume":"121","author":"Visscher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/03008207.2018.1553960","article-title":"Bio-ink development for three-dimensional bioprinting of hetero-cellular cartilage constructs","volume":"61","author":"Mouser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Connect. Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1002\/term.1682","article-title":"An additive manufacturing-based PCL-alginate-chondrocyte bioprinted scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering","volume":"9","author":"Kundu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelhamid, M.M., Eid, G., Othman, M.H.M., Ibrahim, H., Elsers, D., Elyounsy, M., Kwon, S.Y., Kim, M., Kim, D., and Kim, J.-W. (2023). The Evaluation of Cartilage Regeneration Efficacy of Three-Dimensionally Biofabricated Human-Derived Biomaterials on Knee Osteoarthritis: A Single-Arm, Open Label Study in Egypt. J. Pers. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13050748"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3413","article-title":"A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity","volume":"34","author":"Kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2302508","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202302508","article-title":"Enhancing Craniofacial Bone Reconstruction with Clinically Applicable 3D Bioprinted Constructs","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7814","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08412-0","article-title":"3D biomimetic artificial bone scaffolds with dual-cytokines spatiotemporal delivery for large weight-bearing bone defect repair","volume":"7","author":"Bao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bprint.2020.e00103","article-title":"3D bioprinting for orthopaedic applications: Current advances, challenges and regulatory considerations","volume":"20","author":"Stanco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioprinting"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022002","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ac4fb5","article-title":"Bioprinted microvasculature: Progressing from structure to function","volume":"14","author":"Seymour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2102661","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202102661","article-title":"3D Bioprinting of Engineered Tissue Flaps with Hierarchical Vessel Networks (VesselNet) for Direct Host-To-Implant Perfusion","volume":"33","author":"Szklanny","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11668","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-93276-y","article-title":"Development and deployment of a functional 3D-bioprinted blood vessel","volume":"15","author":"Dell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1007\/s13770-023-00615-z","article-title":"Implantation of Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (ADSCs)-Lining Prosthetic Graft Promotes Vascular Regeneration in Monkeys and Pigs","volume":"21","author":"Zuo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1039\/C4LC00030G","article-title":"Hydrogel bioprinted microchannel networks for vascularization of tissue engineering constructs","volume":"14","author":"Bertassoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3179","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1521342113","article-title":"Three-dimensional bioprinting of thick vascularized tissues","volume":"113","author":"Kolesky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw2459","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw2459","article-title":"Biomanufacturing of organ-specific tissues with high cellular density and embedded vascular channels","volume":"5","author":"Uzel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav9051","article-title":"3D bioprinting of collagen to rebuild components of the human heart","volume":"365","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1500758","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500758","article-title":"Three-dimensional printing of complex biological structures by freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels","volume":"1","author":"Hinton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav9750","article-title":"Multivascular networks and functional intravascular topologies within biocompatible hydrogels","volume":"364","author":"Grigoryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"460","article-title":"Engineering of tissue constructs using coaxial bioprinting","volume":"6","author":"Kjar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.07.038","article-title":"Direct 3D bioprinting of perfusable vascular constructs using a blend bioink","volume":"106","author":"Jia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900344","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201900344","article-title":"3D Printing of Personalized Thick and Perfusable Cardiac Patches and Hearts","volume":"6","author":"Noor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.10.011","article-title":"Development of an innervated tissue-engineered skin with human sensory neurons and Schwann cells differentiated from iPS cells","volume":"82","author":"Muller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw5111","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw5111","article-title":"Aspiration-assisted bioprinting for precise positioning of biologics","volume":"6","author":"Ayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13148","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69960-6","article-title":"Aspiration-assisted bioprinting of the osteochondral interface","volume":"10","author":"Ayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015013","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/abc1bf","article-title":"Aspiration-assisted bioprinting of co-cultured osteogenic spheroids for bone tissue engineering","volume":"13","author":"Heo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1038\/s42005-020-00449-4","article-title":"Aspiration-assisted freeform bioprinting of prefabricated tissue spheroids in a yield-stress gel","volume":"3","author":"Ayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Commun. Phys."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2001657","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202001657","article-title":"Hybrid bioprinting of zonally stratified human articular cartilage using scaffold-free tissue strands as building blocks","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035023","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ab84cc","article-title":"Using chaotic advection for facile high-throughput fabrication of ordered multilayer micro- and nanostructures: Continuous chaotic printing","volume":"12","author":"Samandari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2200448","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202200448","article-title":"One-step bioprinting of multi-channel hydrogel filaments using chaotic advection: Fabrication of pre-vascularized muscle-like tissues","volume":"11","author":"Khademhosseini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"3DBio Therapeutics (2026, August 28). 3DBio Therapeutics and the Microtia-Congenital Ear Deformity Institute Conduct Human Ear Reconstruction Using 3D-Bioprinted Living Tissue Implant in a First-in-Human Clinical Trial Business Wire: Business Wire. Available online: https:\/\/www.businesswire.com\/news\/home\/20220602005051\/en\/3DBio-Therapeutics-and-the-Microtia-Congenital-Ear-Deformity-Institute-Conduct-Human-Ear-Reconstruction-Using-3D-Bioprinted-Living-Tissue-Implant-in-a-First-in-Human-Clinical-Trial."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jovic, T.H., Combellack, E.J., Jessop, Z.M., and Whitaker, I.S. (2020). 3D Bioprinting and the Future of Surgery. Front. Surg., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsurg.2020.609836"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-022-00338-7","article-title":"Emerging 3D bioprinting applications in plastic surgery","volume":"27","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirsky, N.A., Ehlen, Q.T., Greenfield, J.A., Antonietti, M., Slavin, B.V., Nayak, V.V., Pelaez, D., Tse, D.T., Witek, L., and Daunert, S. (2024). Three-Dimensional Bioprinting: A Comprehensive Review for Applications in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Bioengineering, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11080777"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2022.101138","article-title":"The evolving regulatory landscape in regenerative medicine","volume":"91","author":"Beetler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20417314211027677","DOI":"10.1177\/20417314211027677","article-title":"Current standards and ethical landscape of engineered tissues-3D bioprinting perspective","volume":"12","author":"Sekar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2019). Expedited Programs for Regenerative Medicine Therapies for Serious Conditions: Guidance for Industry, U.S. Food and Drug Administration."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"201","article-title":"AI-driven 3D bioprinting for regenerative medicine: From bench to bedside","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2022.12.018","article-title":"Organs-on-a-chip: A union of tissue engineering and microfabrication","volume":"41","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-016-1612-8","article-title":"3D Bioprinting for Tissue and Organ Fabrication","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/17\/1595\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T09:04:53Z","timestamp":1788339893000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/17\/1595"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["cells15171595"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells15171595","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]}}}