{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T17:12:20Z","timestamp":1788541940274,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007064","name":"University of Ja\u00e9n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2026\/00073\/001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026\/00073\/001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007064","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2026\/00073\/001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026\/00073\/001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0122p5f64","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuroinflammation within the tumor microenvironment (TME) of central nervous system (CNS) neoplasms, particularly glioblastoma (GBM), is no longer viewed merely as a reactive phenomenon but rather as a major driver of gliomagenesis and malignant transformation. This process involves a shift from acute immune activation to a chronic, sterile state that reshapes the CNS borders and immune niches to favor tumor evasion. This narrative review provides a comprehensive mechanistically focused analysis of the mechanisms governing the inflammatory stroma in primary and metastatic brain neoplasms. It critically examines the ontogeny and transcriptomic profile of myeloid and glial populations, dismantling the binary M1\/M2 polarization model in favor of a continuum of functional states determined by metabolic and oxygenation gradients. It also analyzes intracellular signaling cascades, the subversion of innate immunity sensors such as the cGAS-STING pathway, the epigenetic reprogramming of stromal cells, and the role of extracellular vesicles. The electrochemical integration of tumor cells into neuronal circuits via glutamatergic synapses and connexin 43 gap junction coupling is addressed in detail, defining the mitogenic impact of neuronal activity on the tumor. The inflammatory profiles of IDH-wildtype and IDH-mutant gliomas and of secondary brain metastases are contrasted. Finally, the correlates of functional neuroimaging, liquid biopsies, and resistance mechanisms to conventional therapies are analyzed, including the GIANT and SENIPERA clinical trials, CARv3-TEAM-E bivalent cellular immunotherapy preconditioned with the LDC + R regimen, and the accelerated approval of dordaviprone (Modeyso) in H3 K27M-mutant diffuse midline gliomas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15171612","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T16:07:32Z","timestamp":1788538052000},"page":"1612","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Neuroinflammation in Central Nervous System Tumors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6149-090X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Cueto-Ure\u00f1a","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental and Clinical Physiopathology Research Group CTS-1039, Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Ja\u00e9n, E23071 Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9379-203X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Jes\u00fas","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Exp\u00f3sito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental and Clinical Physiopathology Research Group CTS-1039, Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Ja\u00e9n, E23071 Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2950-5614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Manuel","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Martos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental and Clinical Physiopathology Research Group CTS-1039, Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Ja\u00e9n, E23071 Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14432","article-title":"Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels","volume":"523","author":"Louveau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40070","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.40070","article-title":"Aquaporin-4-dependent glymphatic solute transport in the rodent brain","volume":"7","author":"Mestre","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14407","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-026-05285-x","article-title":"Multi-omics analysis of perfluorooctanoic acid and glioblastoma: Insights from Mendelian randomization, network toxicology, and molecular docking","volume":"399","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4185","article-title":"The role of microglia and macrophages in glioma maintenance and progression","volume":"19","author":"Hambardzumyan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2017.02.009","article-title":"The Microenvironmental Landscape of Brain Tumors","volume":"31","author":"Quail","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.5414\/NP301671","article-title":"Brain tumor microenvironment: Mechanisms, interactions, and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"44","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1002\/jemt.1125","article-title":"Role of microglia in glioma biology","volume":"54","author":"Badie","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microsc. Res. Tech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-026-02999-3","article-title":"Consensus statement on microglial and macrophage functions in gliomas","volume":"151","author":"Zheng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-018-0025-8","article-title":"Multidimensional communication in the microenvirons of glioblastoma","volume":"14","author":"Broekman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noaf295","article-title":"Multimodality mapping of immunotherapy distribution as a predictive marker in glioma","volume":"28","author":"Scheck","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09411-2","article-title":"Axonal injury is a targetable driver of glioblastoma progression","volume":"646","author":"Clements","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-025-02149-0","article-title":"Increased neural excitability and glioma synaptic activity drives glioma proliferation in human cortex","volume":"29","author":"McAlpine","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21029","article-title":"Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia","volume":"541","author":"Liddelow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3599","article-title":"Identification of a unique TGF-beta-dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia","volume":"17","author":"Butovsky","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1194637","article-title":"Fate mapping analysis reveals that adult microglia derive from primitive macrophages","volume":"330","author":"Ginhoux","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-017-1362-4","article-title":"Single-cell profiling of human gliomas reveals macrophage ontogeny as a basis for regional differences in macrophage activation in the tumor microenvironment","volume":"18","author":"Muller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2025.105833","article-title":"Comprehensive immune ageing reveals TREM2\/TIM3 myeloid cells drive brain immune evasion","volume":"118","author":"Sepulveda","year":"2025","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2025.01.009","article-title":"Synthesis, preclinical evaluation and pilot clinical study of a P2Y(12) receptor targeting radiotracer [(18)F]QTFT for imaging brain disorders by visualizing anti-inflammatory microglia","volume":"15","author":"Yao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, H., You, G., Huang, J., Lin, Y., Huang, J., Liang, R., and Lin, C. (2026). Hypoxic CA9-high mesenchymal-like glioma stem cells promote ANXA1-FPR1-dependent macrophage polarization in recurrent glioblastoma. J. Neuroinflamm.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-026-03905-0"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e48535","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000048535","article-title":"Successful treatment of anti-LGI1-associated autoimmune encephalitis with efgartigimod: A case report and literature review","volume":"105","author":"Gao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.05.007","article-title":"Interrogation of the Microenvironmental Landscape in Brain Tumors Reveals Disease-Specific Alterations of Immune Cells","volume":"181","author":"Klemm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.055","article-title":"Single-Cell Mapping of Human Brain Cancer Reveals Tumor-Specific Instruction of Tissue-Invading Leukocytes","volume":"181","author":"Friebel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-026-10451-5","article-title":"Androgen loss accelerates brain tumour growth via HPA axis activation","volume":"653","author":"Lee","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03605-1","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle-derived miR21 of non-tumoral origin as early diagnostic marker of glioma","volume":"22","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.100638","article-title":"S100A proteins show a spatial distribution of inflammation associated with the glioblastoma microenvironment architecture","volume":"15","author":"Contreras","year":"2025","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2006.12.006","article-title":"Regulation of IL-10 expression by upstream stimulating factor (USF-1) in glioma-associated microglia","volume":"184","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5106","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-25-01020","article-title":"Dual strategies for neural injury repair: Targeted modulation of reactive astrocytes and functional astrocyte transplantation","volume":"21","author":"Cai","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brehar, F.M., Costea, D., Tataru, C.P., Radoi, M.P., Ciurea, A.V., Munteanu, O., and Tulin, A. (2025). The Fluidic Connectome in Brain Disease: Integrating Aquaporin-4 Polarity with Multisystem Pathways in Neurodegeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311536"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2513172122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2513172122","article-title":"Mechanical compression induces neuronal apoptosis, reduces synaptic activity, and promotes glial neuroinflammation in mice and humans","volume":"123","author":"Zarodniuk","year":"2026","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400","DOI":"10.1002\/epi.70141","article-title":"Hippocampal atrophy and functional plasticity underlie cognitive outcome in anti-leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 encephalitis and their clinical correlates","volume":"67","author":"Song","year":"2026","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-1999-0","article-title":"MAFG-driven astrocytes promote CNS inflammation","volume":"578","author":"Wheeler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s41232-023-00300-7","article-title":"Testosterone upregulates glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and promotes neuroinflammation to enhance glioma cell survival and proliferation","volume":"43","author":"Kanwore","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inflamm. Regen."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-026-00439-y","article-title":"Astrocytes in neuroinflammation and brain cancer","volume":"7","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e122264","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.122264","article-title":"Global immune fingerprinting in glioblastoma patient peripheral blood reveals immune-suppression signatures associated with prognosis","volume":"3","author":"Alban","year":"2018","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.171.3.1232","article-title":"L-arginine consumption by macrophages modulates the expression of CD3 zeta chain in T lymphocytes","volume":"171","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-026-03754-x","article-title":"Tumor immunogenicity shapes CNS immune niches and CD8(+) T cell fate in glioblastoma","volume":"23","author":"Asalla","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3294","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-05-3773","article-title":"Increased regulatory T-cell fraction amidst a diminished CD4 compartment explains cellular immune defects in patients with malignant glioma","volume":"66","author":"Fecci","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0135-2","article-title":"Sequestration of T cells in bone marrow in the setting of glioblastoma and other intracranial tumors","volume":"24","author":"Chongsathidkiet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, H., Cheng, L., Liu, D., Ma, Y., Fan, H., He, S., Liang, W., Mei, D., Ma, X., and Li, R. (2026). Complement C5a\/C5aR1 pathway facilitates glioblastoma progression via fostering glioma stem cell-macrophage symbiosis. J. Neuroinflamm.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-026-03930-z"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-24-4869","article-title":"C5aR1 Inhibition Alleviates Cranial Radiation-Induced Cognitive Decline","volume":"86","author":"Krattli","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8131","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S526158","article-title":"PANoptosis: Cross-Talk Among Apoptosis, Necroptosis, and Pyroptosis in Neurological Disorders","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2026.04.031","article-title":"PANoptosis: An emerging programmed cell death pathway in neurological diseases mechanisms and therapeutic translation","volume":"606","author":"Tang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5671","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-16-0144","article-title":"CCL2 Produced by the Glioma Microenvironment Is Essential for the Recruitment of Regulatory T Cells and Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells","volume":"76","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70107","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.70107","article-title":"Microglial Activation Visualized by [(18)F]-DPA714 PET Is a Potential Marker of Severity and Prognosis for Anti-LGI1 Encephalitis","volume":"32","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03551-y","article-title":"IL-1beta(+) tumor-associated macrophages accelerate glioblastoma progression by amplifying the PGE2-EP4 signaling","volume":"22","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1158\/1535-7163.MCT-09-0734","article-title":"Glioblastoma cancer-initiating cells inhibit T-cell proliferation and effector responses by the signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 pathway","volume":"9","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Narasimhappagari, J., Liu, L., Balasubramaniam, M., Ayyadevara, S., Aboud, O., and Griffin, W.S.T. (2025). The Seminal Role of the Proinflammatory Cytokine IL-1beta and Its Signaling Cascade in Glioblastoma Pathogenesis and the Therapeutic Effect of Interleukin-1beta Receptor Antagonist (IL-1RA) and Tolcapone. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26146893"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt, S., Isaak, A., and Junker, A. (2023). Spotlight on P2X7 Receptor PET Imaging: A Bright Target or a Failing Star?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021374"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00524-z","article-title":"The cGAS-STING pathway as a therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases","volume":"21","author":"Decout","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18268","article-title":"Carcinoma-astrocyte gap junctions promote brain metastasis by cGAMP transfer","volume":"533","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11786469231153111","DOI":"10.1177\/11786469231153111","article-title":"Endothelial Indoleamine-2,3-Dioxygenase-1 is not Critically Involved in Regulating Antitumor Immunity in the Central Nervous System","volume":"16","author":"Huck","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Tryptophan Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13490","article-title":"Functional polarization of tumour-associated macrophages by tumour-derived lactic acid","volume":"513","author":"Colegio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03405-7","article-title":"Unlocking the therapeutic potential of tumor-derived EVs in ischemia-reperfusion: A breakthrough perspective from glioma and stroke","volume":"22","author":"Hao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03434-2","article-title":"Gut microbiota and their influence in brain cancer milieu","volume":"22","author":"BharathwajChetty","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubinski, P., Odzimek-Rajska, M., Podlewski, S., and Brola, W. (2025). Emerging Insights into the Role of the Microbiome in Brain Gliomas: A Systematic Review of Recent Evidence. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27010444"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cueto-Urena, C., Ramirez-Exposito, M.J., and Martinez-Martos, J.M. (2025). Neuron-Glioma Synapses in Tumor Progression. Biomedicines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines14010072"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1564-x","article-title":"Glutamatergic synaptic input to glioma cells drives brain tumour progression","volume":"573","author":"Venkataramani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1563-y","article-title":"Electrical and synaptic integration of glioma into neural circuits","volume":"573","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X23666241209090326","article-title":"Pharmacological Blockade of Group II Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Reduces the Incidence of Brain Tumors Induced by Prenatal Exposure to N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea in Rats","volume":"23","author":"Arcella","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noab106","article-title":"The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A summary","volume":"23","author":"Louis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2010.03.017","article-title":"Identification of a CpG island methylator phenotype that defines a distinct subgroup of glioma","volume":"17","author":"Noushmehr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0095-6","article-title":"Suppression of antitumor T cell immunity by the oncometabolite (R)-2-hydroxyglutarate","volume":"24","author":"Bunse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/noae219","article-title":"The immune landscape in brain metastasis","volume":"27","author":"Schreurs","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.28663","article-title":"Advanced MR Techniques for Preoperative Glioma Characterization: Part 2","volume":"57","author":"Hangel","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02749-2","article-title":"[(18)F]F-DED PET imaging of reactive astrogliosis in neurodegenerative diseases: Preclinical proof of concept and first-in-human data","volume":"20","author":"Ballweg","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-025-07531-5","article-title":"[18F]fluorodeprenyl-D2 PET can detect and monitor astrogliosis in anti-LGI1-IgG autoimmune encephalitis","volume":"53","author":"Gernert","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-026-03806-2","article-title":"Glioblastoma radiomics can delineate systemic immune activity states like blood abundance of T cell populations or transcription factors","volume":"23","author":"Heugenhauser","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5733","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-026-07926-y","article-title":"The prognostic significance of TSPO-PET imaging in IDH-mutant glioma: A single-center, retrospective study","volume":"53","author":"Muller","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/nov118","article-title":"From the clinician\u2019s point of view\u2014What is the status quo of positron emission tomography in patients with brain tumors?","volume":"17","author":"Galldiks","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2023.110761","article-title":"Telmisartan inhibits microglia-induced neurotoxic A1 astrocyte conversion via PPARgamma-mediated NF-kappaB\/p65 degradation","volume":"123","author":"Quan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3337","article-title":"CSF-1R inhibition alters macrophage polarization and blocks glioma progression","volume":"19","author":"Pyonteck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2024.08.012","article-title":"Fibrotic response to anti-CSF-1R therapy potentiates glioblastoma recurrence","volume":"42","author":"Watson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1093\/neuonc\/nov245","article-title":"Orally administered colony stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor PLX3397 in recurrent glioblastoma: An Ivy Foundation Early Phase Clinical Trials Consortium phase II study","volume":"18","author":"Butowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuro Oncol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12891","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-025-04154-3","article-title":"Neuropharmacological effects of calycosin: A translational review of molecular mechanisms and therapeutic applications","volume":"398","author":"Ahmed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ram\u00edrez-Exp\u00f3sito, M.J., Cueto-Ure\u00f1a, C., and Mart\u00ednez-Martos, J.M. (2026). Multitargeted Flavonoids in Glioblastoma Therapy. Appl. Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/app16126218"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaf2968","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaf2968","article-title":"Disrupting the CD47-SIRPalpha anti-phagocytic axis by a humanized anti-CD47 antibody is an efficacious treatment for malignant pediatric brain tumors","volume":"9","author":"Gholamin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2314390","article-title":"Intraventricular CARv3-TEAM-E T Cells in Recurrent Glioblastoma","volume":"390","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luksik, A.S., Yazigi, E., Shah, P., and Jackson, C.M. (2023). CAR T Cell Therapy in Glioblastoma: Overcoming Challenges Related to Antigen Expression. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15051414"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2026.218564","article-title":"Human neural stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles improve cognitive function following glioma chemoradiation therapy","volume":"653","author":"Hudson","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eschen, J.T., Jensen, L.L., Hausmann, D., Lind, A.N.R., Lukacova, S., Weischenfeldt, J., Lassen, U., Westphal, M., Winkler, F., and Simonsen, U. (2026). SENIPERA Phase 0\/1 randomized window-of-opportunity clinical trial of SENIcapoc and PERAmpanel mono- and combination therapy of newly diagnosed glioblastoma: A trial protocol. BMC Cancer, 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-026-15784-y"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3559","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-025-08159-x","article-title":"High-grade gliomas with autoimmune encephalitis-like presentation: Case report and systematic review of the literature","volume":"46","author":"Cereda","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.70394","article-title":"Glioblastoma mimicking anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: A case series","volume":"56","author":"Chatterton","year":"2026","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5704","DOI":"10.3390\/curroncol30060428","article-title":"Translational Models in Glioma Immunotherapy Research","volume":"30","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sloan, L., Sen, R., Liu, C., Doucet, M., Blosser, L., Katulis, L., Kamson, D.O., Grossman, S., Holdhoff, M., and Redmond, K.J. (2024). Radiation immunodynamics in patients with glioblastoma receiving chemoradiation. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1438044"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2020.1024","article-title":"Effect of Nivolumab vs Bevacizumab in Patients with Recurrent Glioblastoma","volume":"6","author":"Reardon","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/17\/1612\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T16:15:20Z","timestamp":1788538520000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/17\/1612"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["cells15171612"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells15171612","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]}}}