{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T05:04:21Z","timestamp":1790053461719,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Bulgarian National Science Fund","award":["KP 06-DV3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KP 06-DV3"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05eg49r29","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["KP 06-DV3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KP 06-DV3"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05eg49r29","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cytotoxic lymphocytes contribute to immune regulation at the maternal\u2013fetal interface, yet their regulating mechanisms during early pregnancy remain elusive. We investigated compartment-specific NK- and \u03b3\u03b4T-cell degranulation towards trophoblast-derived signals. Blood and decidual mononuclear cells were obtained from non-pregnant women and women in early pregnancy. Spontaneous and trophoblast-mediated degranulation of NK- and \u03b3\u03b4T-cell subsets was assessed following co-culture with Sw71 extravillous trophoblast-like cells with normal and reduced expression of HLA-G\/HLA-C molecules. CD107a-positive frequency and mean fluorescence intensity were quantified by flow cytometry. Statistical analyses included paired testing, multivariate analyses, and false discovery rate correction. Decidual cytotoxic lymphocytes displayed a distinct degranulation profile compared with blood counterparts. At baseline, \u03b3\u03b4T cells exhibited higher spontaneous degranulation than NK cells. Trophoblast co-culture exerted limited effects on NK-cell degranulation; however, decidual CD56+ \u03b3\u03b4 T cells showed increased degranulation towards trophoblasts with impaired HLA expression. In conclusion, early pregnancy is characterized by a highly compartmentalized regulation of cytotoxic lymphocyte activity. Decidual NK and \u03b3\u03b4T cells exhibit enhanced degranulation, but only CD56+ \u03b3\u03b4T cells retain substantial responsiveness to trophoblast-derived signals. These findings identify \u03b3\u03b4T cells as a dynamically regulated cytotoxic population at the maternal\u2013fetal interface, sensitive to local shifts in trophoblast immune signaling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15181691","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T09:01:38Z","timestamp":1789981298000},"page":"1691","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Compartmentalized and Differential Regulation of NK- and \u03b3\u03b4 T-Cell Degranulation by Trophoblast-Derived Signals During Early Pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Mariela","family":"Ivanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3939-4604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Alexandrova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4992-002X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitar","family":"Parvanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nadezhda Women\u2019s Health Hospital, 1330 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Diana","family":"Manchorova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C.S. Mott Center for Human Growth and Development, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5643-6715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonia","family":"Terzieva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4623-2777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivaylo","family":"Vangelov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Kiril","family":"Kirilov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Molecular Biology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8665-4352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanya","family":"Dimova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology and Immunology of Reproduction, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-4004(03)00167-X","article-title":"The immunological paradox of pregnancy: A reappraisal","volume":"25","author":"Moffett","year":"2004","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0897.2010.00836.x","article-title":"The immune system in pregnancy: A unique complexity","volume":"63","author":"Mor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. 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