{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T12:02:19Z","timestamp":1790164939422,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32660206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32660206"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32660206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32660206"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory myocardial disease induced by infection, autoimmunity, or immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy. Its immunopathogenesis has long been attributed primarily to T-cell-mediated cellular immunity. Increasing evidence now indicates that B cells contribute to the initiation, persistence, and myocardial remodeling of myocarditis not only as a source of autoantibodies, but also through antigen presentation, cytokine secretion, and immunoregulatory crosstalk. The emergence of single-cell sequencing and B-cell receptor (BCR) repertoire sequencing has begun to reveal B-cell clonal expansion, immunoglobulin class switching, and dynamic shifts in functional subsets, offering a new window into humoral immune responses in myocarditis. This review synthesizes current evidence on BCR repertoire remodeling, autoantibody-mediated myocardial injury, functional heterogeneity among B-cell subsets, and the clinical translation of these findings. B cells can mediate myocardial damage through autoantibodies against adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT), cardiac myosin, and acetylcholine receptor (AChR), and their pathogenic effects depend on immunoregulatory networks such as Th17\/IL-17 signaling and autophagy. Notably, B cells are functionally heterogeneous, TNF-\u03b1+ B cells promote persistent inflammation and myocardial fibrosis, whereas IL-10+ regulatory B cells (Bregs) confer immune protection by suppressing Th17 responses and maintaining Treg homeostasis. Studies of ICI-associated myocarditis suggest that BCR repertoire features and autoantibody profiles may provide insights into disease-associated immune remodeling. However, the clinical utility of these features as biomarkers remains uncertain, given the lack of standardized assays and sufficiently validated sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility. In the future, integrating BCR repertoire, multi-omics, and functional subset analyses may improve characterization of disease-associated humoral immune responses and help identify candidate biomarkers for further clinical investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15191734","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T11:09:08Z","timestamp":1790161748000},"page":"1734","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["B-Cell Immune Responses in Myocarditis: Mechanisms, B-Cell Receptor Repertoire, and Clinical Translation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Xixiong","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Center of Immunomolecular Engineering, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6960-4003","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinsheng","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Center of Immunomolecular Engineering, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5777-2659","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Center of Immunomolecular Engineering, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60648-X","article-title":"Myocarditis","volume":"379","author":"Sagar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e145186","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI145186","article-title":"Immune checkpoint inhibitor\u2013associated myocarditis: Manifestations and mechanisms","volume":"131","author":"Moslehi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.124.323816","article-title":"Autoimmune Myocarditis, Old Dogs and New Tricks","volume":"134","author":"Won","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcm.2020.12.007","article-title":"Viral myocarditis: 1917\u20132020: From the Influenza A to the COVID-19 pandemics","volume":"31","author":"Rezkalla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.3483","article-title":"The Global, Regional, and National Burden of Myocarditis in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990\u20132021: Results From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.me.38.020187.001253","article-title":"Myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy","volume":"38","author":"Kawai","year":"1987","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehm111","article-title":"Myocarditis and heart failure: Need for better diagnostic, predictive, and therapeutic tools","volume":"28","author":"Heymans","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4984","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.17372","article-title":"Immunoglobin attenuates fulminant myocarditis by inhibiting overactivated innate immune response","volume":"182","author":"Wen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70111","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.70111","article-title":"Immune Mechanisms of Viral, Autoimmune, and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Associated Myocarditis","volume":"338","author":"Jo","year":"2026","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Myers, J.M., Sandel, C., Alvarez, K., Garman, L., Wiley, G., Montgomery, C., Gaffney, P., Stavrakis, S., Fairweather, D., and Bruno, K.A. (2025). Cardiac autoantibodies promote a fibrotic transcriptome and reduced ventricular recovery in human myocarditis. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1500909"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvad029","article-title":"Inhibition of phosphoglycerate kinase 1 attenuates autoimmune myocarditis by reprogramming CD4+ T cell metabolism","volume":"119","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.125.073836","article-title":"Single-Cell Multi-Omics Identifies Specialized Cytotoxic and Migratory CD8 + Effector T Cells in Acute Myocarditis","volume":"152","author":"Tong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2003608","article-title":"A Novel Circulating MicroRNA for the Detection of Acute Myocarditis","volume":"384","author":"Tsilingiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfr014","article-title":"Expression of Functional T-Cell Markers and T-Cell Receptor Vbeta Repertoire in Endomyocardial Biopsies from Patients Presenting with Acute Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy","volume":"13","author":"Noutsias","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"101458","article-title":"Cardiopathogenic T Cells Govern Progression and Functional Remodeling in Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy and Chronic Myocarditis","volume":"11","author":"Joachimbauer","year":"2026","journal-title":"Basic Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2007.01.003","article-title":"Molecular mapping of autoimmune B cell responses in experimental myocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Krebs","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2007.060544","article-title":"B-Cell Epitope Spreading Is a Critical Step for the Switch from C-Protein-Induced Myocarditis to Dilated Cardiomyopathy","volume":"170","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-013-9889-y","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1-Secreting B Cells Contribute to Myocardial Fibrosis in Dilated Cardiomyopathy","volume":"33","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-9842(02)00010-7","article-title":"Circulating Cardiac Autoantibodies in Dilated Cardiomyopathy and Myocarditis: Pathogenetic and Clinical Significance","volume":"4","author":"Caforio","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e189323","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.189323","article-title":"\u03b17nAChR on B cells directs T cell differentiation to prevent viral myocarditis","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2019.116838","article-title":"IL-10-producing B cells attenuate cardiac inflammation by regulating Th1 and Th17 cells in acute viral myocarditis induced by coxsackie virus B3","volume":"235","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2013.11.008","article-title":"Autophagy contributes to IL-17-induced plasma cell differentiation in experimental autoimmune myocarditis","volume":"18","author":"Yuan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"101636","article-title":"Functional Autoantibodies in Myocardial Diseases","volume":"11","author":"Vanhentenrijk","year":"2026","journal-title":"Basic Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Xu, D., Murakoshi, N., Yuan, Z., Imaoka, T., and Tajiri, K. (2024). Autoantibody profiling of patients with immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis: A pilot study. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1423622"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16279","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.16279","article-title":"Beyond T cell toxicity\u2013Intrathecal chemokine CXCL13 indicating B cell involvement in immune-related adverse events following checkpoint inhibition: A two-case series and literature review","volume":"31","author":"Otto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13770","article-title":"Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals the altered innate immunity in immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis","volume":"172","author":"Lou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.86.3.281","article-title":"Immunoglobulin isotype determines pathogenicity in antibody-mediated myocarditis in na\u00efve mice","volume":"86","author":"Kuan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2019.104025","article-title":"PGE2 ameliorated viral myocarditis development and promoted IL-10-producing regulatory B cell expansion via MAPKs\/AKT-AP1 axis or AhR signaling","volume":"347","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a015230","article-title":"Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators Circulating cardiac-specific autoantibodies as markers of autoimmunity in clinical and biopsy-proven myocarditis","volume":"18","author":"Caforio","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/12.suppl_D.178","article-title":"Autoantibodies against the -adrenergic receptor in human myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: -Adrenergic agonism without desensitization","volume":"12","author":"Wallukat","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2026.103527","article-title":"Nanoparticle-enabled CD40 silencing programs immune tolerance via a DC-Treg-Breg axis in autoimmune myocarditis","volume":"40","author":"Yu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/cei\/uxac015","article-title":"The absence of B cells disrupts splenic and myocardial Treg homeostasis in coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis","volume":"208","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/302575a0","article-title":"Somatic Generation of Antibody Diversity","volume":"302","author":"Tonegawa","year":"1983","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)81833-4","article-title":"The Origins of V(D)J Recombination","volume":"88","author":"Lewis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-024-02243-4","article-title":"Single-cell immune repertoire analysis","volume":"21","author":"Irac","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-023-00284-1","article-title":"Adaptive immune receptor repertoire analysis","volume":"4","author":"Mhanna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Prim."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.124.323661","article-title":"Exploring T Cell Receptor Repertoires in Myocardial Diseases","volume":"134","author":"Ashour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1038\/s41435-025-00343-5","article-title":"Peripheral immune imbalance in pediatric fulminant myocarditis revealed by single-cell sequencing and plasma proteomics","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Genes Immun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vkaf283","DOI":"10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf283.467","article-title":"JAK Inhibition Reprograms Immune Response in Fulminant Myocarditis 2562","volume":"214","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2025.103860","article-title":"Infectious agents in dilated cardiomyopathy: Genetic interactions, autoimmunity, mechanisms, and therapeutic approaches","volume":"24","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2141.1995.tb05419.x","article-title":"A human monoclonal antibody obtained from EBV-transformed B cells with specificity for myosin","volume":"91","author":"Daret","year":"1995","journal-title":"Br. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/16.suppl_O.59","article-title":"Impairment of left ventricular function in combined immune deficiency mice after transfer of peripheral blood leukocytes from patients with myocarditis","volume":"16","author":"Schwimmbeck","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.75.1.156","article-title":"Transfer of human myocarditis into severe combined immunodeficiency mice","volume":"75","author":"Schwimmbeck","year":"1994","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6363(99)00204-7","article-title":"Disturbance of myocardial energy metabolism in experimental virus myocarditis by antibodies against the adenine nucleotide translocator","volume":"44","author":"Schulze","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-009-9355-z","article-title":"Th17 Cells Facilitate the Humoral Immune Response in Patients with Acute Viral Myocarditis","volume":"30","author":"Yuan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2009.11.010","article-title":"Neutralization of IL-17 inhibits the production of anti-ANT autoantibodies in CVB3-induced acute viral myocarditis","volume":"10","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e004792","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2022-004792","article-title":"Prognosis of immune checkpoint inhibitors-induced myocarditis: A case series","volume":"11","author":"Coustal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.106111","article-title":"The role of B regulatory (B10) cells in inflammatory disorders and their potential as therapeutic targets","volume":"78","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-018-0950-0","article-title":"B Cells Increase Myocardial Inflammation by Suppressing M2 Macrophage Polarization in Coxsackie Virus B3-Induced Acute Myocarditis","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-021-01472-5","article-title":"The Role of B Cells in Regulation of Th Cell Differentiation in Coxsackievirus B3\u2013Induced Acute Myocarditis","volume":"44","author":"Cen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2004.01.008","article-title":"Gene expression profiling during the transition to failure in TNF-\u03b1 over-expressing mice demonstrates the development of autoimmune myocarditis\u2606","volume":"36","author":"Tang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1093\/jleuko\/qiad066","article-title":"Insights into the roles of IL-10\u2013producing regulatory B cells in cardiovascular disorders: Recent advances and future perspectives","volume":"114","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1159\/000488405","article-title":"Defective Circulating Regulatory B Cells in Patients with Dilated Cardiomyopathy","volume":"46","author":"Jiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2022.106208","article-title":"Trehalose induces B cell autophagy to alleviate myocardial injury via the AMPK\/ULK1 signalling pathway in acute viral myocarditis induced by Coxsackie virus B3","volume":"146","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2021.11.009","article-title":"Biomarkers of B cell activation in autoimmune connective tissue diseases: More than markers of disease activity","volume":"100","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soyfoo, M., and Sarrand, J. (2026). Plasmablasts as Translational Biomarkers in Autoimmune Diseases: From Cellular Dynamics to Clinical Decision-Making. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 48.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb48010077"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-005-4187-y","article-title":"Infectious Tolerance to ADP\/ATP Carrier Peptides Induced by Anti-L3T4 Monoclonal Antibody in Dilated Cardiomyopathy Mice","volume":"25","author":"Liao","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C.-R., Tsai, Y.-S., Tsai, H.-W., and Lee, C.-H. (2021). B-Cell-Depleting Therapy Improves Myocarditis in Seronegative Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10194577"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.190569","article-title":"Acute Myocarditis in Patients with Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody\u2013positive Microscopic Polyangiitis and Receiving Rituximab Therapy","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"245","article-title":"Immune Profiling Identifies Inflammatory Signatures in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor\u2013Related Myocarditis","volume":"8","author":"Daoudlarian","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cardio Oncol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.124.324243","article-title":"B-Cell Immune Checkpoints Come of Age in Cardio-oncology","volume":"134","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3188","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1103354","article-title":"A Novel IL-10\u2013Independent Regulatory Role for B Cells in Suppressing Autoimmunity by Maintenance of Regulatory T Cells via GITR Ligand","volume":"188","author":"Ray","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-015-0257-9","article-title":"Increased frequency of follicular helper T cells in mice viral myocarditis is relevant with anti-ANT antoantibody","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2849","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200636484","article-title":"Neutralization of IL-17 by active vaccination inhibits IL-23-dependent autoimmune myocarditis","volume":"36","author":"Sonderegger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2004.08.009","article-title":"Autoimmune myocarditis: Cellular mediators of cardiac dysfunction","volume":"3","author":"Afanasyeva","year":"2004","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, S., Zhang, C., Li, J., Dai, Z., Huang, J., Deng, F., Wang, X., Yue, X., Hu, X., and Li, Y. (2022). Designing a multi-epitope vaccine against coxsackievirus B based on immunoinformatics approaches. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.933594"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.124320","article-title":"Bioinformatics and immunoinformatics approach to develop potent multi-peptide vaccine for coxsackievirus B3 capable of eliciting cellular and humoral immune response","volume":"239","author":"Ullah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2026.104042","article-title":"The BAFF\/APRIL system at the crossroads of B cell memory and autoimmune relapse: Implication into the therapeutic strategies","volume":"25","author":"Liao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, K., Fang, H., Davies, G., Wright, B., Lockstone, H., Williams, R.O., Cih\u00e1kov\u00e1, D., Knight, J.C., and Bhattacharya, S. (2021). Transcriptomic Analysis of Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy Identifies Molecular Signatures of Disease and Informs in silico Prediction of a Network-Based Rationale for Therapy. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.640837"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6066","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201701408R","article-title":"Immunomodulation by adoptive regulatory T-cell transfer improves Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis","volume":"32","author":"Pappritz","year":"2018","journal-title":"FASEB J."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/19\/1734\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T11:20:10Z","timestamp":1790162410000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/15\/19\/1734"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["cells15191734"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells15191734","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]}}}