{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T11:09:09Z","timestamp":1790248149351,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R01DK135470-07A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01DK135470-07A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["1R01DK135470-07A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01DK135470-07A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01cwqze88","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remains the leading cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal failure worldwide despite significant advances in glucose-lowering and renoprotective therapies. Emerging evidence identifies mitochondrial dysfunction as a central pathogenic mechanism linking metabolic stress to chronic inflammation and progressive renal injury. In the diabetic kidney, hyperglycemia, lipotoxicity, and oxidative stress impair mitochondrial quality control pathways, particularly mitophagy, a targeted mitochondrial degradation pathway, leading to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria and increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. A critical consequence of mitochondrial damage is the cytosolic release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which acts as a potent damage-associated molecular pattern and can activate innate immune pathways, including cGAS\u2013STING, NLRP3 inflammasome, and Toll-like receptor 9 signaling. Persistent mtDNA-driven immune activation promotes sterile inflammation, cellular senescence, extracellular matrix remodeling, and renal fibrosis, thereby establishing a vicious cycle that accelerates DKD progression. In this review, we examine the emerging role of the mitochondrial DNA\u2013inflammatory axis in DKD, highlighting the interplay between mitophagy dysfunction, mtDNA release, innate immune activation, and fibrotic remodeling. We further discuss the potential of circulating and urinary mtDNA as biomarkers of disease activity and evaluate therapeutic strategies targeting mitochondrial quality control, oxidative stress, and mtDNA-sensing pathways. Collectively, these findings position mtDNA as a critical mechanistic link between mitochondrial dysfunction and chronic inflammation, and support targeting the mitochondrial\u2013immune axis as a promising strategy for precision therapies in DKD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells15191746","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T10:16:28Z","timestamp":1790244988000},"page":"1746","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Free Mitochondrial DNA and Mitophagy Dysfunction in Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Central Mitochondrial\u2013Inflammatory Axis Driving Progressive Renal Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Aasthika","family":"Das","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Lalu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4369-5810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vikky","family":"Awasthi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cyrine","family":"Ben Dhaou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology and Translational Pathobiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center-Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hebaalaha","family":"Hussein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Cardiovascular Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children\u2019s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA"},{"name":"The Heart Center, Nationwide Children\u2019s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6276-0337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Glenn","family":"Gerhard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karim","family":"Bahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Inflammation and Lung Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iris","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Hypertension & Kidney Transplantation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1303-8967","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishwajeet","family":"Puri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diabetes Institute, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6468-1269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rihab","family":"Bouchareb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Research, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2032","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.11491116","article-title":"Diabetic Kidney Disease: Challenges, Progress, and Possibilities","volume":"12","author":"Alicic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. 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