{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T09:56:25Z","timestamp":1789898185371,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,23]],"date-time":"2017-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1506124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IDeA Program Grant GM110732"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IDeA Program Grant GM110732"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cells"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite, with approximately one-third of the worlds\u2019 population chronically infected. In chronically infected individuals, the parasite resides in tissue cysts in neurons in the brain. The chronic infection in immunocompetant individuals has traditionally been considered to be asymptomatic, but increasing evidence indicates that chronic infection is associated with diverse neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, cryptogenic epilepsy, and Parkinson\u2019s Disease. The mechanisms by which the parasite exerts affects on behavior and other neuronal functions are not understood. Human neurons derived from cellular reprogramming methods offer the opportunity to develop better human neuronal models to study T. gondii in neurons. Results from two studies using human neurons derived via cellular reprogramming methods indicate these human neuronal models provide better in vitro models to study the effects of T. gondii on neurons and neurological functions. In this review, an overview of the current neural reprogramming methods will be given, followed by a summary of the studies using human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neurons and induced neurons (iNs) to study T. gondii in neurons. The potential of these neural reprogramming methods for further study of the host-parasite interactions of T. gondii in neurons will be discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cells6040032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,26]],"date-time":"2017-09-26T04:28:01Z","timestamp":1506400081000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Use of Human Neurons Derived via Cellular Reprogramming Methods to Study Host-Parasite Interactions of Toxoplasma gondii in Neurons"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Sandra","family":"Halonen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00124-7","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: From animals to humans","volume":"30","author":"Tenter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00535321","article-title":"An ultrastructural study of the early development and tissue cyst formation of Toxoplasma gondii in the brains of mice","volume":"73","author":"Ferguson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1997.tb05965.x","article-title":"Bradyzoite-induced murine toxoplasmosis: Stage conversion, pathogenesis, and tissue cyst formation in mice fed bradyzoites of different strains of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"44","author":"Dubey","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2011.08.006","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii antibody titers and history of suicide attempts in patients with schizophrenia","volume":"133","author":"Okusaga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2011.01.004","article-title":"Prenatal depression and anxiety in Toxoplasma gondii-positive women","volume":"204","author":"Groer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.12423","article-title":"Beyond the association. Toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"132","author":"Sutterland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbs043","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii and other risk factors for schizophrenia: An update","volume":"38","author":"Torrey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2012.668","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection and self-directed violence in mothers","volume":"69","author":"Pedersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2010.02.020","article-title":"May Toxoplasma gondii increase suicide attempt-preliminary results in turkish subjects?","volume":"199","author":"Yagmur","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forensic. Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2011.10091351","article-title":"Toxoplasma infection and later development of schizophrenia in mothers","volume":"168","author":"Pedersen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1177\/1533317513517049","article-title":"Possible link between Toxoplasma gondii and the anosmia associated with neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"29","author":"Prandota","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Dement."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2009.12.013","article-title":"Is there any role of Toxoplasma gondii in the etiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder?","volume":"177","author":"Miman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000166","article-title":"Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and nonpsychiatric controls","volume":"202","author":"Dickerson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbp161","article-title":"Association of increased prenatal estrogen with risk factors for schizophrenia","volume":"37","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbq146","article-title":"Maternal infection and schizophrenia: Implications for prevention","volume":"37","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2009.01131.x","article-title":"Toxoplasma and schizophrenia","volume":"31","author":"Yolken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2","article-title":"Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in alzheimer disease?","volume":"25","author":"Kusbeci","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.03.057","article-title":"The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"475","author":"Miman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2011.00063","article-title":"Exposure to prenatal infection and risk of schizophrenia","volume":"2","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2013.11.012","article-title":"Latent Toxoplasma gondii infection leads to deficits in goal-directed behavior in healthy elderly","volume":"35","author":"Beste","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S1059-1311(02)00256-X","article-title":"Investigation of probable relationship between Toxoplasma gondii and cryptogenic epilepsy","volume":"12","author":"Yazar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2007.05.010","article-title":"Meta-analysis of three case controlled studies and an ecological study into the link between cryptogenic epilepsy and chronic toxoplasmosis infection","volume":"16","author":"Palmer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2009.09.011","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorders may be due to cerebral toxoplasmosis associated with chronic neuroinflammation causing persistent hypercytokinemia that resulted in an increased lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress, and depressed metabolism of endogenous and exogenous substances","volume":"4","author":"Prandota","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Autism Spect Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngoungou, E.B., Bhalla, D., Nzoghe, A., Darde, M.L., and Preux, P.M. (2015). Toxoplasmosis and epilepsy--systematic review and meta analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003525"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2015.02.028","article-title":"Neurobiological studies on the relationship between toxoplasmosis and neuropsychiatric diseases","volume":"351","author":"Fabiani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3169","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-016-5075-5","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis and alzheimer: Can Toxoplasma gondii really be introduced as a risk factor in etiology of alzheimer?","volume":"115","author":"Hamidi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haroon, F., Handel, U., Angenstein, F., Goldschmidt, J., Kreutzmann, P., Lison, H., Fischer, K.D., Scheich, H., Wetzel, W., and Schluter, D. (2012). Toxoplasma gondii actively inhibits neuronal function in chronically infected mice. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035516"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prandovszky, E., Gaskell, E., Martin, H., Dubey, J.P., Webster, J.P., and McConkey, G.A. (2011). The neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii increases dopamine metabolism. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023866"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"459","article-title":"Chronic murine toxoplasmosis is defined by subtle changes in neuronal connectivity","volume":"7","author":"Parlog","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koshy, A.A., Dietrich, H.K., Christian, D.A., Melehani, J.H., Shastri, A.J., Hunter, C.A., and Boothroyd, J.C. (2012). Toxoplasma co-opts host cells it does not invade. PLoS Pathog., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002825"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mammari, N., Vignoles, P., Halabi, M.A., Darde, M.L., and Courtioux, B. (2014). In Vitro infection of human nervous cells by two strains of Toxoplasma gondii: A kinetic analysis of immune mediators and parasite multiplication. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098491"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2015039","article-title":"Interferon gamma effect on immune mediator production in human nerve cells infected by two strains of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"22","author":"Mammari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360050315","article-title":"Cyst formation by Toxoplasma gondii in vivo and in brain-cell culture: A comparative morphology and immunocytochemistry study","volume":"83","author":"Sahm","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360050351","article-title":"Neurons in primary culture are less efficiently infected by Toxoplasma gondii than glial cells","volume":"84","author":"Creuzet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(99)01568-9","article-title":"Differential development of Toxoplasma gondii in neural cells","volume":"15","author":"Fagard","year":"1999","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1097\/00005072-199611000-00006","article-title":"Growth and development of Toxoplasma gondii in human neurons and astrocytes","volume":"55","author":"Halonen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.12625","article-title":"Modeling human neurological disorders with induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"129","author":"Imaizumi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1002\/term.2021","article-title":"Current advances in the generation of human ips cells: Implications in cell-based regenerative medicine","volume":"10","author":"Revilla","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.201591267","article-title":"Probing disorders of the nervous system using reprogramming approaches","volume":"34","author":"Ichida","year":"2015","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.5500\/wjt.v5.i4.209","article-title":"Induced pluripotent stem cells for modeling neurological disorders","volume":"5","author":"Russo","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"11","article-title":"In-a-dish: Induced pluripotent stem cells as a novel model for human diseases","volume":"83","author":"Pignatari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cytometry A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-014-1989-9","article-title":"Neurodegenerative diseases in a dish: The promise of ipsc technology in disease modeling and therapeutic discovery","volume":"36","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2012.07.010","article-title":"Stem cell-derived cell cultures and organoids for protozoan parasite propagation and studying host-parasite interaction","volume":"302","author":"Klotz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2007.418","article-title":"Induction of pluripotent stem cells from fibroblast cultures","volume":"2","author":"Takahashi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.07.024","article-title":"Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors","volume":"126","author":"Takahashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2015.0044","article-title":"Advances in reprogramming-based study of neurologic disorders","volume":"24","author":"Nityanandam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, N., Xu, H., Gao, W.Q., and Yang, H. (2016). Direct conversion of somatic cells into induced neurons. Mol. Neurobiol., 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-0350-0"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.100","article-title":"Modeling psychiatric disorders: From genomic findings to cellular phenotypes","volume":"21","author":"Falk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-016-0139-7","article-title":"3D culture models of alzheimer\u2019s disease: A road map to a \u201ccure-in-a-dish\u201d","volume":"11","author":"Choi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2013.08.035","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease in a dish\u2014Using stem cells as a molecular tool","volume":"76","author":"Badger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-013-1511-1","article-title":"In Vitro neurogenesis: Development and functional implications of ipsc technology","volume":"71","author":"Compagnucci","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09915","article-title":"Modelling schizophrenia using human induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"473","author":"Brennand","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.5966\/sctm.2013-0080","article-title":"Efficient and rapid derivation of primitive neural stem cells and generation of brain subtype neurons from human pluripotent stem cells","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1893","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.499","article-title":"Efficient generation of functional dopaminergic neurons from human induced pluripotent stem cells under defined conditions","volume":"28","author":"Swistowski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2012.07825.x","article-title":"Investigating the utility of human embryonic stem cell-derived neurons to model ageing and neurodegenerative disease using whole-genome gene expression and splicing analysis","volume":"122","author":"Patani","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2938","article-title":"Turning straw into gold: Directing cell fate for regenerative medicine","volume":"12","author":"Cohen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pre, D., Nestor, M.W., Sproul, A.A., Jacob, S., Koppensteiner, P., Chinchalongporn, V., Zimmer, M., Yamamoto, A., Noggle, S.A., and Arancio, O. (2014). A time course analysis of the electrophysiological properties of neurons differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (ipscs). PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103418"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3693","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-016-2265-3","article-title":"Common pitfalls of stem cell differentiation: A guide to improving protocols for neurodegenerative disease models and research","volume":"73","author":"Engel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2928","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.211","article-title":"Cd15, cd24, and cd29 define a surface biomarker code for neural lineage differentiation of stem cells","volume":"27","author":"Pruszak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, S.H., Martin, J., Elia, J., Flippin, J., Paramban, R.I., Hefferan, M.P., Vidal, J.G., Mu, Y., Killian, R.L., and Israel, M.A. (2011). Cell-surface marker signatures for the isolation of neural stem cells, glia and neurons derived from human pluripotent stem cells. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017540"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2015.07.011","article-title":"Enhanced conversion of induced neuronal cells (in cells) from human fibroblasts: Utility in uncovering cellular deficits in mental illness-associated chromosomal abnormalities","volume":"101","author":"Passeri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.1972","article-title":"Small molecules enable highly efficient neuronal conversion of human fibroblasts","volume":"9","author":"Ladewig","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38290","DOI":"10.1038\/srep38290","article-title":"Small molecules increase direct neural conversion of human fibroblasts","volume":"6","author":"Pfisterer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"21.28.1","article-title":"Highly expandable human ips cell-derived neural progenitor cells (npc) and neurons for central nervous system disease modeling and high-throughput screening","volume":"92","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgg.2015.10.001","article-title":"The epigenetic reprogramming roadmap in generation of ipscs from somatic cells","volume":"42","author":"Brix","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Genet. Genom."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2016.11.007","article-title":"Epigenetics of cell fate reprogramming and its implications for neurological disorders modelling","volume":"99","author":"Grzybek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10761","article-title":"The promise of induced pluripotent stem cells in research and therapy","volume":"481","author":"Robinton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12272-016-0871-0","article-title":"A new era of disease modeling and drug discovery using induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"40","author":"Suh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Pharmacal Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13551","article-title":"Abnormalities in human pluripotent cells due to reprogramming mechanisms","volume":"511","author":"Ma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00930955","article-title":"Tissue cyst rupture in mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. An immunocytochemical and ultrastructural study","volume":"75","author":"Ferguson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2011.10.004","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: Determination of the onset of chronic infection in mice and the in vitro reactivation of brain cysts","volume":"130","author":"Chew","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2007.09.017","article-title":"Detection of the initial site of Toxoplasma gondii reactivation in brain tissue","volume":"38","author":"Takashima","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4989","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.66.10.4989-4993.1998","article-title":"Effect of cytokines on growth of Toxoplasma gondii in murine astrocytes","volume":"66","author":"Halonen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2004.10.020","article-title":"Microglia and macrophages as innate producers of interferon-gamma in the brain following infection with Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"35","author":"Suzuki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3128869","article-title":"Interferon-gamma: The major mediator of resistance against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"240","author":"Suzuki","year":"1988","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2016.03.012","article-title":"Use of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons as a model for cerebral toxoplasmosis","volume":"18","author":"Tanaka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2015.09.023","article-title":"Infection and characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in human induced neurons from patients with brain disorders and healthy controls","volume":"18","author":"Passeri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24223","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M100951200","article-title":"Microarray analysis reveals previously unknown changes in Toxoplasma gondii-infected human cells","volume":"276","author":"Blader","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2009.02453.x","article-title":"Communication between Toxoplasma gondii and its host: Impact on parasite growth, development, immune evasion, and virulence","volume":"117","author":"Blader","year":"2009","journal-title":"APMIS Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1128\/EC.00002-11","article-title":"Evidence for host cells as the major contributor of lipids in the intravacuolar network of toxoplasma-infected cells","volume":"10","author":"Caffaro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eukaryot. Cell"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2008.01117.x","article-title":"Infection with Toxoplasma gondii results in dysregulation of the host cell cycle","volume":"10","author":"Molestina","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2003.11.009","article-title":"Mechanisms underlying the manipulation of host apoptotic pathways by Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"34","author":"Sinai","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01228-06","article-title":"Infection with Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites has a diminished impact on host transcript levels relative to tachyzoite infection","volume":"75","author":"Fouts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12267","article-title":"Toxoplasma development\u2014Turn the switch on or off?","volume":"16","author":"White","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-6851(03)00198-1","article-title":"A change in the premitotic period of the cell cycle is associated with bradyzoite differentiation in Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"131","author":"Radke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6871","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1300059110","article-title":"Apiap2 transcription factor restricts development of the toxoplasma tissue cyst","volume":"110","author":"Radke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-6851(97)00236-3","article-title":"Targeted disruption of the bradyzoite-specific gene bag1 does not prevent tissue cyst formation in Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"92","author":"Bohne","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2008.06249.x","article-title":"The transcription of bradyzoite genes in Toxoplasma gondii is controlled by autonomous promoter elements","volume":"68","author":"Behnke","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00734512","article-title":"The host-parasite relationship of Toxoplasma gondii in the brains of chronically infected mice","volume":"411","author":"Ferguson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Virchows Arch. A Pathol. Anat. Histopathol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s40588-016-0045-3","article-title":"Reexamining chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection: Surprising activity for a \u201cdormant\u201d parasite","volume":"3","author":"Sinai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Clin. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01155\u201315","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01155-15","article-title":"Novel approaches reveal that Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites within tissue cysts are dynamic and replicating entities in vivo","volume":"6","author":"Watts","year":"2015","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David, C.N., Frias, E.S., Szu, J.I., Vieira, P.A., Hubbard, J.A., Lovelace, J., Michael, M., Worth, D., McGovern, K.E., and Ethell, I.M. (2016). Glt-1-dependent disruption of cns glutamate homeostasis and neuronal function by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005643"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5573","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.9.5573-5576.2001","article-title":"Gamma interferon-induced inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii in astrocytes is mediated by igtp","volume":"69","author":"Halonen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2003.12.010","article-title":"The role of astrocytes in the immunopathogenesis of toxoplasmic encephalitis","volume":"34","author":"Wilson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2683","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.4.2683","article-title":"Astrocyte gp130 expression is critical for the control of toxoplasma encephalitis","volume":"181","author":"Drogemuller","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Cells"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/6\/4\/32\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:45:44Z","timestamp":1760208344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4409\/6\/4\/32"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,23]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["cells6040032"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells6040032","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4409"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4409","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,23]]}}}