{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T13:16:33Z","timestamp":1788441393400,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dimensionalized diagnostic systems, especially the entry criterion of maladaptive self and interpersonal functioning, hold particular advantages for the downward extension of personality pathology to young persons, but require conceptual clarification. The current study evaluated the distinctiveness of maladaptive self and interpersonal functioning by examining its incremental value over and above general psychiatric severity in the association with personality pathology. A community sample of N = 419 youth (50.4% female; Mage = 11.91, SD = 1.19) between the ages of 10 and 14 completed measures of maladaptive self- and interpersonal functioning, general psychiatric severity (internalizing\u2013externalizing spectrum), and personality pathology. Results showed that, as expected, maladaptive self- and interpersonal functioning incremented general psychiatric severity in the association with personality pathology in adolescents. Results contribute to the literature base illustrating the value of the entry criterion of the ICD-11 and AMPD diagnostic system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10010120","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T02:09:39Z","timestamp":1673230179000},"page":"120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Maladaptive Self- and Interpersonal Functioning Increments General Psychiatric Severity in the Association with Adolescent Personality Pathology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Carla","family":"Sharp","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 126 Heyne Building, Houston, TX 77004, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Breana Rachelle","family":"Cervantes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 126 Heyne Building, Houston, TX 77004, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-081219-093304","article-title":"The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence","volume":"17","author":"Kotov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20611","article-title":"Innovations and changes in the ICD-11 classification of mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"18","author":"Reed","year":"2019","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"WHO (2022). ICD-11 Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines for Mental and Behavioural Disorders."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Association, A.P. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bach, B., and First, M.B. (2018). Application of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders. BMC Psychiatry, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-018-1908-3"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.12.004","article-title":"Manifestations of personality impairment severity: Comorbidity, course\/prognosis, psychosocial dysfunction, and \u2018borderline\u2019 personality features","volume":"21","author":"Clark","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000563","article-title":"The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, alternative model conceptualization of borderline personality disorder: A review of the evidence","volume":"13","author":"Vanwoerden","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000525","article-title":"Antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy: The AMPD in review","volume":"13","author":"Anderson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000544","article-title":"The alternative model of personality disorder is inadequate for capturing obsessive-compulsive personality disorder","volume":"13","author":"Samuel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000534","article-title":"Narcissism and the DSM-5 alternative model of personality disorder","volume":"13","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000553","article-title":"Is the alternative model for personality disorders able to capture avoidant personality disorder according to Section II of the DSM-5? A systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Hummelen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000538","article-title":"Schizotypal personality disorder in the alternative model for personality disorders","volume":"13","author":"Kwapil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000527","article-title":"Clinical Utility of the AMPD: A 10th Year Anniversary Review","volume":"13","author":"Bach","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personal. Disord. Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000551","article-title":"Criterion A: Level of personality functioning in the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders","volume":"13","author":"Morey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000524","article-title":"The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition alternative model of personality disorder","volume":"13","author":"Widiger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000568","article-title":"The trait model of the DSM-5 alternative model of personality disorder (AMPD): A structural review","volume":"13","author":"Clark","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40479-022-00182-0","article-title":"The ICD-11 classification of personality disorders: A European perspective on challenges and opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Bach","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bord. Personal. Disord. Emot. Dysregul."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867417727867","article-title":"ICD-11 and DSM-5 personality trait domains capture categorical personality disorders: Finding a common ground","volume":"52","author":"Bach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2008.12.002","article-title":"Integrating a developmental perspective in dimensional models of personality disorders","volume":"29","author":"Widiger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Gratz, K., and Lejeuz, C. (2020). Personality pathology in children and adolescents. Handbook of Personality Disorders, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/cpsp.12047","article-title":"Assessing personality disorders in adolescents Seven guiding principles","volume":"20","author":"Shiner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huprich, S.K. (2022). The assessement of personality function in adolescents. Ersonality Disorders and Pathology: Integrating Clinical Assessment and Practice in the DSM-5 and ICD-11 Era, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/0000310-000"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000105","article-title":"Integrating early intervention for borderline personality disorder and mood disorders","volume":"24","author":"Chanen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000341","article-title":"Managing borderline personality disorder from a life course perspective: Clinical staging and health management","volume":"10","author":"Hutsebaut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Personal. Disord.:Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Skodol, A.E., and Oldham, J. (2021). Early identification and prevention of personality pathology: An AMPD informed model of clinical staging. The American Psychiatric Association Textbook of Personality Disorders, American Psychiatric Association."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1027\/1016-9040\/a000236","article-title":"Three Lines of Personality Development A Conceptual Itinerary","volume":"20","author":"McAdams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1080\/15427609.2015.1068057","article-title":"Tracing Three Lines of Personality Development","volume":"12","author":"McAdams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.093008.100507","article-title":"Personality Development: Continuity and Change Over the Life Course","volume":"61","author":"McAdams","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2018.07.004","article-title":"Adolescence as a Sensitive Period for the Development of Personality Disorder","volume":"41","author":"Sharp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Sharp, C., and Oldham, J. (2022). Nature and Assessment of Personality Pathology and Diagnosis. Am. J. Psychother., online early access."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.153.12.1593","article-title":"Establishing the severity of personality disorder","volume":"153","author":"Tyrer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2011.583808","article-title":"Toward a model for assessing level of personality functioning in DSM-5, part I: A review of theory and methods","volume":"93","author":"Bender","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2011.577853","article-title":"Toward a Model for Assessing Level of Personality Functioning in DSM-5, Part II: Empirical Articulation of a Core Dimension of Personality Pathology","volume":"93","author":"Morey","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095736","article-title":"The Development of the ICD-11 Classification of Personality Disorders: An Amalgam of Science, Pragmatism, and Politics","volume":"15","author":"Tyrer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702613497473","article-title":"The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?","volume":"2","author":"Caspi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000063","article-title":"Three-Pronged Assessment and Diagnosis of Personality Disorder and Its Consequences: Personality Functioning, Pathological Traits, and Psychosocial Disability","volume":"5","author":"Clark","year":"2014","journal-title":"Personal. Disord.-Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2020.06.005","article-title":"The p factor and dimensional structural models of youth personality pathology and psychopathology","volume":"37","author":"Shields","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000552","article-title":"Personality disorders are dead; long live the interpersonal disorders: Comment on Widiger and Hines (2022)","volume":"13","author":"Wright","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1465431","article-title":"Criterion A of the AMPD in HiTOP","volume":"101","author":"Widiger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pers. Assess."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00952","article-title":"Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (DSM-5) Predicts Dropout in Inpatient Psychotherapy for Patients With Personality Disorder","volume":"10","author":"Busmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000547","article-title":"The incremental utility of maladaptive self and identity functioning over general functioning for borderline personality disorder features in adolescents","volume":"13","author":"Sharp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goth, K., Birkh\u00f6lzer, M., and Schmeck, K. (2019, November 05). LoPF-Q 12\u201318 (Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire) German Version: A Self-Report Questionnaire for Measuring Personality Functioning in Adolescence-Short Description. Available online: http:\/\/www.academic-tests.com.","DOI":"10.1037\/t71085-000"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Sharp, C., and Vanwoerden, S. (2018). Culture-Adapted Version English USA of the Self-Report Questionnaire LoPF-Q 12-18 (Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire; authors Goth & Schmeck)\u2014Short Manual. Academic-Tests. 2018. (Unpublished translation). Acad.-Tests, unpublished translation."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1007\/s10862-021-09867-2","article-title":"Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire (LoPF-Q) 12\u201318 Turkish version: Reliability, validity, factor structure and relationship with comorbid psychopathology in a Turkish adolescent sample","volume":"43","author":"Cosgun","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1489258","article-title":"Assessment of personality functioning in adolescents with the LoPF-Q 12-18 Self-Report Questionnaire","volume":"100","author":"Goth","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kerr, S., McLaren, V., Cano, K., Vanwoerden, S., Goth, K., and Sharp, C. (2022). Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire 12\u201318 (LoPF-Q 12\u201318): Factor structure, validity, and clinical cut-offs. Assessment, online early access.","DOI":"10.1177\/10731911221124340"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Goth, K., and Schmeck, K. (2019, November 05). AIDA (Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence) German Version: A Self-Report Questionnaire for Measuring Identity Development in Adolescence-Short Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.academic-tests.com."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharp, C., Vanwoerden, S., Odom, A., and Foelsch, P. (2018). Culture-adapted version English USA of the Self-Report Questionnaire AIDA (Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence; authors Goth & Schmeck)- Short manual. Offenb. Acad.-Tests, unpublished translation.","DOI":"10.1037\/t89529-000"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-6-27","article-title":"Assessment of identity development and identity diffusion in adolescence- Theoretical basis and psychometric properties of the self-report questionnaire AIDA","volume":"6","author":"Goth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-7-25","article-title":"Psychometric properties of a culture-adapted Spanish version of AIDA (Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence) in Mexico","volume":"7","author":"Kassin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Sharp, C., McLaren, V., Musetti, A., Vanwoerden, S., Hernandez Ortiz, J., Schmeck, K., Birkhoelzer, M., and Goth, K. The Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence (AIDA) questionnaire: First psychometric evaluation in two North American samples of young people. J. Personal. Assess., online early access."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Achenbach, T.M., McConaughy, S.H., Ivanova, M.Y., and Rescorla, L.A. (2020, January 27). Manual for the ASEBA brief problem monitor (BPM). Available online: https:\/\/documents.acer.org\/ASEBA_Brief_Problem_Monitor_Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Achenbach, T.M. (2009). The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA): Development, Findings, Theory, and Applications, University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, Families."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3109\/08039488.2014.951070","article-title":"Preliminary evidence for good psychometric properties of the Norwegian version of the Brief Problems Monitor (BPM)","volume":"69","author":"Richter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nord. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krueger, R.F., Derringer, J., Markon, K.E., Watson, D., and Skodol, A.E. (2013). The Personality Inventory for DSM\u20135, Brief Form (PID-5-BF)-Adult, American Psychiatric Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/t30042-000"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi.2011.25.2.170","article-title":"Deriving an empirical structure of personality pathology for DSM-5","volume":"25","author":"Krueger","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191115621793","article-title":"The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 Brief Form: Evidence for reliability and construct validity in a sample of community-dwelling Italian adolescents","volume":"24","author":"Fossati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"263","article-title":"Maladaptative personality traits in adolescence: Behavioural, emotional and motivational correlates of the PID-5-BF scales","volume":"31","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Korycinski, K.M. (2017). A Psychometric Evaluation of the Brief Form of the PID-5 in an Inpatient Adolescent Sample. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Houston]."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000057","article-title":"An 11-item measure to assess borderline traits in adolescents: Refinement of the BPFSC using IRT","volume":"5","author":"Sharp","year":"2014","journal-title":"Personal. Disord. Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579405050492","article-title":"Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study","volume":"17","author":"Crick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"IBM Corp (2022). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, IBM Corp. Version 29.0."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1428982","article-title":"It\u2019s not that difficult: An interrater reliability study of the DSM-5 Section III Alternative Model for Personality Disorders","volume":"100","author":"Garcia","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.1549","article-title":"New data toward fulfilling the promise of the ICD-11 severity criterion","volume":"16","author":"Sharp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/1\/120\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:01:38Z","timestamp":1760119298000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/1\/120"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["children10010120"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children10010120","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]}}}