{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T10:45:48Z","timestamp":1789555548305,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":171,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,29]],"date-time":"2023-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, the existing relationship between excess overweight and central precocious puberty (CPP) has been reported, especially in girls. Different nutritional choices have been associated with different patterns of puberty. In particular, the involvement of altered biochemical and neuroendocrine pathways and a proinflammatory status has been described in connection with a high-fat diet (HFD). In this narrative review, we present an overview on the relationship between obesity and precocious pubertal development, focusing on the role of HFDs as a contributor to activating the hypothalamus\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal axis. Although evidence is scarce and studies limited, especially in the paediatric field, the harm of HFDs on PP is a relevant problem that cannot be ignored. Increased knowledge about HFD effects will be useful in developing strategies preventing precocious puberty in children with obesity. Promoting HFD-avoiding behavior may be useful in preserving children\u2019s physiological development and protecting reproductive health. Controlling HFDs may represent a target for policy action to improve global health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10020241","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T04:31:27Z","timestamp":1675053087000},"page":"241","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Links between Childhood Obesity, High-Fat Diet, and Central Precocious Puberty"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2137-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Calcaterra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vittoria Carlotta","family":"Magenes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Hruby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Siccardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7418-1447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Mari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6634-9254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika","family":"Cordaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6449-1724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Fabiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science \u201cL. Sacco\u201d, University of Milano, 20157 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2795-9874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianvincenzo","family":"Zuccotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science \u201cL. Sacco\u201d, University of Milano, 20157 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021, September 15). UNICEF\/WHO\/The World Bank Group Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates: Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition: Key Findings of the 2020 Edition [Internet]. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications-detail-redirect\/jme-2020-edition."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-010-1356-7","article-title":"Metabolic, inflammatory, endothelial and haemostatic markers in a group of Italian obese children and adolescents","volume":"170","author":"Giordano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3310\/hta19430","article-title":"The use of measures of obesity in childhood for predicting obesity and the development of obesity-related diseases in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Simmonds","year":"2015","journal-title":"Health Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1159\/000342642","article-title":"Oxidative stress in obesity and metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents","volume":"78","author":"Faienza","year":"2012","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.5181","article-title":"Risk factors for subclinical atherosclerosis in diabetic and obese children","volume":"10","author":"Faienza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000161369.71722.10","article-title":"Overweight in children and adolescents: Pathophysiology, consequences, prevention, and treatment","volume":"111","author":"Daniels","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e865","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3296","article-title":"Attributable risks for childhood overweight: Evidence for limited effectiveness of prevention","volume":"130","author":"Kehden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056871","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1056871","article-title":"Childhood obesity and central precocious puberty","volume":"13","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0204-126","article-title":"Inflamed about obesity","volume":"10","author":"Lehrke","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05485","article-title":"Inflammation and metabolic disorders","volume":"444","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2006.01.009","article-title":"Etiology of insulin resistance","volume":"119","author":"Petersen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1089\/met.2004.2.82","article-title":"The metabolic syndrome and inflammation","volume":"2","author":"Sutherland","year":"2004","journal-title":"Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1003","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.90377.2008","article-title":"Hypothalamic proinflammatory lipid accumulation, inflammation, and insulin resistance in rats fed a high-fat diet","volume":"296","author":"Posey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2542","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.8.16.9386","article-title":"NFkappaB-mediated metabolic inflammation in peripheral tissues versus central nervous system","volume":"8","author":"Cai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803156","article-title":"The impact of childhood body mass index on timing of puberty, adult stature and obesity: A follow-up study based on adolescent anthropometry recorded at Christ\u2019s Hospital (1936\u20131964)","volume":"30","author":"Sandhu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calcaterra, V., Verduci, E., Magenes, V.C., Pascuzzi, M.C., Rossi, V., Sangiorgio, A., Bosetti, A., Zuccotti, G., and Mameli, C. (2021). The Role of Pediatric Nutrition as a Modifiable Risk Factor for Precocious Puberty. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11121353"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S172","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-1813D","article-title":"Examination of US Puberty-Timing Data from 1940 to 1994 for Secular Trends: Panel Findings","volume":"121","author":"Euling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valsamakis, G., Arapaki, A., Balafoutas, D., Charmandari, E., and Vlahos, N.F. (2021). Diet-Induced Hypothalamic Inflammation, Phoenixin, and Subsequent Precocious Puberty. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103460"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930747","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.930747","article-title":"Effects of High-Fat Diet During Childhood on Precocious Puberty and Gut Microbiota in Mice","volume":"13","author":"Bo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e299","DOI":"10.1002\/ctm2.299","article-title":"Altered nitric oxide induced by gut microbiota reveals the connection between central precocious puberty and obesity","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370220961320","article-title":"Overexpression of p53 accelerates puberty in high-fat diet\u2013fed mice through Lin28\/let-7 system","volume":"246","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2014.11.018","article-title":"Microglia Dictate the Impact of Saturated Fat Consumption on Hypothalamic Inflammation and Neuronal Function","volume":"9","author":"Valdearcos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ12-0280","article-title":"Immunohistochemical evidence for the relationship between microglia and GnRH neurons in the preoptic area of ovariectomized rats with and without steroid replacement","volume":"60","author":"Fujioka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1229","article-title":"Puberty\u2014Genes, environment and clinical issues","volume":"29","author":"Kiess","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2021.104980","article-title":"Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) affects the activity of the gonadotrophic axis in sheep","volume":"131","author":"Szlis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-2573","article-title":"Pediatric Obesity\u2014Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline","volume":"102","author":"Styne","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Cesare, M., Sori\u0107, M., Bovet, P., Miranda, J.J., Bhutta, Z., Stevens, G.A., Laxmaiah, A., Kengne, A.P., and Bentham, J. (2019). The epidemiological burden of obesity in childhood: A worldwide epidemic requiring urgent action. BMC Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-019-1449-8"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2004.016675","article-title":"Evidence for secular trends in children\u2019s physical activity behaviour","volume":"39","author":"Dollman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"129","article-title":"Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents","volume":"6","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Res. Pediatr. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s40291-020-00496-1","article-title":"Genetic Determinants of Childhood Obesity","volume":"24","author":"Littleton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3203","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3203","article-title":"Childhood obesity: Aetiology, comorbidities, and treatment","volume":"35","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes\/Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585887","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.585887","article-title":"Leptin and Obesity: Role and Clinical Implication","volume":"12","author":"Obradovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2021.101206","article-title":"The melanocortin pathway and energy homeostasis: From discovery to obesity therapy","volume":"48","author":"Yeo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12880","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12880","article-title":"MicroRNAs as the promising markers of comorbidities in childhood obesity\u2014A systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Hutny","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Voerman, E., Santos, S., Golab, B.P., Amiano, P., Ballester, F., Barros, H., Bergstr\u00f6m, A., Charles, M.-A., Chatzi, L., and Chevrier, C. (2019). Maternal body mass index, gestational weight gain, and the risk of overweight and obesity across childhood: An individual participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002744"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13389","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13389","article-title":"Perspectives and challenges of epigenetic determinants of childhood obesity: A systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Alfano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv042","article-title":"Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain, offspring DNA methylation and later offspring adiposity: Findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children","volume":"44","author":"Sharp","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463850","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/463850","article-title":"Early Determinants of Obesity: Genetic, Epigenetic, and In Utero Influences","volume":"2012","author":"Rhee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1159\/000520811","article-title":"Early Nutrition and Later Excess Adiposity during Childhood: A Narrative Review","volume":"95","author":"Altaba","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"386","article-title":"Pre and post-natal risk and determination of factors for child obesity","volume":"9","author":"Trandafir","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Life"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13547","article-title":"Pediatric obesity\u2014Long-term consequences and effect of weight loss","volume":"292","author":"Marcus","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2022.106471","article-title":"Medical treatment of weight loss in children and adolescents with obesity","volume":"185","author":"Calcaterra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3073","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-021-04022-1","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of precocious sexual maturation: An updated review","volume":"180","author":"Cheuiche","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"590","article-title":"Disorders of Puberty: An Approach to Diagnosis and Management","volume":"96","author":"Klein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/243095a0","article-title":"Trend towards earlier menarche in London, Olso, Copenhagen, the Netherlands and Hungary","volume":"243","author":"Tanner","year":"1973","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.32.7.281","article-title":"Normal pubertal development: Part II: Clinical aspects of puberty","volume":"32","author":"Bordini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.110.5.911","article-title":"National estimates of the timing of sexual maturation and racial differences among US children","volume":"110","author":"Sun","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1159\/000336325","article-title":"Recent secular trends in pubertal timing: Implications for evaluation and diagnosis of precocious puberty","volume":"77","author":"Mouritsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1590\/2359-3997000000144","article-title":"Central precocious puberty: Revisiting the diagnosis and therapeutic management","volume":"60","author":"Brito","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713880","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.713880","article-title":"The Diagnostic Utility of the Basal Luteinizing Hormone Level and Single 60-Minute Post GnRH Agonist Stimulation Test for Idiopathic Central Precocious Puberty in Girls","volume":"12","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.6065\/apem.2040208.104","article-title":"Single random measurement of urinary gonadotropin concentration for screening and monitoring girls with central precocious puberty","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1177\/0004563216668378","article-title":"The investigation of children and adolescents with abnormalities of pubertal timing","volume":"54","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Kliegman, R., and Nelson, W.E. (2011). Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics [Internet], Elsevier\/Saunders. [19th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1210\/js.2019-00036","article-title":"Treatment of Central Precocious Puberty","volume":"3","author":"Eugster","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009133","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1009133","article-title":"The critical BMI hypothesis for puberty initiation and the gender prevalence difference: Evidence from an epidemiological survey in Beijing, China","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgac395","article-title":"Adiposity Status, Trajectories, and Earlier Puberty Onset: Results From a Longitudinal Cohort Study","volume":"107","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.46.249.695","article-title":"Height and weight at menarche and a hypothesis of menarche","volume":"46","author":"Frisch","year":"1971","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"3434","article-title":"The \u201cAdipo-Cerebral\u201d Dialogue in Childhood Obesity: Focus on Growth and Puberty","volume":"13","author":"Bruno","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiopathol. Nutr. Aspects. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/10284150500047245","article-title":"The brain-adipose axis: A review of involvement of molecules","volume":"8","author":"Shimizu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"229","article-title":"Leptin and obesity","volume":"100","year":"2009","journal-title":"Minerva Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.11622\/smedj.2015183","article-title":"Kisspeptin signalling and its roles in humans","volume":"56","author":"Tng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Singap. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1006\/frne.1999.0187","article-title":"Neuroendocrine regulation and actions of leptin","volume":"20","author":"Casanueva","year":"1999","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"E543","article-title":"Gender differences in leptin levels during puberty are related to the subcutaneous fat depot and sex steroids","volume":"275","author":"Roemmich","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-08-0762","article-title":"The relationship between leptin, gonadotropic hormones, and body composition during puberty in a Dutch children cohort","volume":"160","author":"Rutters","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"3239","article-title":"Leptin is inversely related to age at menarche in human females","volume":"82","author":"Matkovic","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2012.00149","article-title":"A potential mechanism for the sexual dimorphism in the onset of puberty and incidence of idiopathic central precocious puberty in children: Sex-specific kisspeptin as an integrator of puberty signals","volume":"3","author":"Bianco","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2017.11.006","article-title":"Adipose tissue and reproductive health","volume":"86","author":"Mathew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1999.0255","article-title":"Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity","volume":"257","author":"Arita","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-1618","article-title":"Sex hormone-binding globulin levels predict insulin sensitivity, disposition index, and cardiovascular risk during puberty","volume":"32","author":"Aksglaede","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2017-0243","article-title":"Ultrasonographic assessment of pubertal breast development in obese children: Compliance with the clinic","volume":"31","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"4118911","article-title":"Diagnostic Value of LH Peak Value of the GnRH Stimulation Test for Girls with Precocious Puberty and Its Correlation with Body Mass Index","volume":"2022","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Methods Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvab173","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvab173","article-title":"An Approach to the Evaluation and Management of the Obese Child with Early Puberty","volume":"6","author":"Tenedero","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2015-0234","article-title":"Bone maturation along the spectrum from normal weight to obesity: A complex interplay of sex, growth factors and weight gain","volume":"29","author":"Klein","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1515\/JPEM.2006.19.9.1133","article-title":"Relationships of IGF-I and andrrogens to skeletal maturation in obese children and adolescents","volume":"19","author":"Reinehr","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22592","article-title":"Association of BMI with Linear Growth and Pubertal Development","volume":"27","author":"Aris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35","DOI":"10.4081\/pr.2012.e35","article-title":"Update on statural growth and pubertal development in obese children","volume":"4","author":"Marcovecchio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e132","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70381-X","article-title":"Dietary quality among men and women in 187 countries in 1990 and 2010: A systematic assessment","volume":"3","author":"Imamura","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"National Research Council (US) Committee on Diet and Health (1989). Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-022-02885-0","article-title":"Adherence to the Mediterranean diet among adults in Mediterranean countries: A systematic literature review","volume":"61","author":"Obeid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"2390","article-title":"Kidmed test; prevalence of low adherence to the mediterranean diet in children and young; a systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Nissensohn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S55","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451400333X","article-title":"Maternal depression, stress and feeding styles: Towards a framework for theory and research in child obesity","volume":"113","author":"Sharp","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0800655","article-title":"Influence of diet, physical activity and parents\u2019 obesity on children\u2019s adiposity: A four-year longitudinal study","volume":"22","author":"Maffeis","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.008623","article-title":"Short sleep duration and dietary intake: Epidemiologic evidence, mechanisms, and health implications","volume":"6","author":"Dashti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/33.9.1201","article-title":"The association of sleep duration with adolescents\u2019 fat and carbohydrate consumption","volume":"33","author":"Weiss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2018.05.006","article-title":"Consequences of short sleep duration on the dietary intake in children: A systematic review and metanalysis","volume":"42","author":"Barja","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.4.846","article-title":"Energy-dense, low-fiber, high-fat dietary pattern is associated with increased fatness in childhood","volume":"87","author":"Johnson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2005.04.003","article-title":"Behavioural determinants of obesity","volume":"19","author":"Rennie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(99)00224-2","article-title":"Factors related to adiposity among children aged 3 to 7 years","volume":"99","author":"Robertson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201200058","article-title":"Dietary saturated fatty acids prime the NLRP3 inflammasome via TLR4 in dendritic cells-implications for diet-induced insulin resistance","volume":"56","author":"Reynolds","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2020.158776","article-title":"Palmitoleic acid reduces high fat diet-induced liver inflammation by promoting PPAR-\u03b3-independent M2a polarization of myeloid cells","volume":"1865","author":"Souza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell. Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16979","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.646992","article-title":"Palmitoleate Reverses High Fat-induced Proinflammatory Macrophage Polarization via AMP-activated Protein Kinase (AMPK)","volume":"290","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.3.813","article-title":"Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes","volume":"27","author":"Pickup","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199901143400207","article-title":"Atherosclerosis--an inflammatory disease","volume":"340","author":"Ross","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658913","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/658913","article-title":"New insight into adiponectin role in obesity and obesity-related diseases","volume":"2014","author":"Nigro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4109","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2010-0336","article-title":"Minireview: Inflammation and obesity pathogenesis: The hypothalamus heats up","volume":"151","author":"Thaler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.51.4.1131","article-title":"Elevated levels of acute-phase proteins and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 predict the development of type 2 diabetes: The insulin resistance atherosclerosis study","volume":"51","author":"Festa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1799","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.52.7.1799","article-title":"Low-grade systemic inflammation and the development of type 2 diabetes: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study","volume":"52","author":"Duncan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.04.001","article-title":"The hormonal control of food intake","volume":"129","author":"Coll","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1456","article-title":"Hypothalamic sensing of fatty acids","volume":"8","author":"Lam","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05026","article-title":"Central nervous system control of food intake and body weight","volume":"443","author":"Morton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1548","article-title":"Agouti-related peptide-expressing neurons are mandatory for feeding","volume":"8","author":"Gropp","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1115524","article-title":"NPY\/AgRP neurons are essential for feeding in adult mice but can be ablated in neonates","volume":"310","author":"Luquet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.009902","article-title":"Brain-gut-adipose-tissue communication pathways at a glance","volume":"5","author":"Yi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1038\/35078085","article-title":"Leptin activates anorexigenic POMC neurons through a neural network in the arcuate nucleus","volume":"411","author":"Cowley","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1038\/39335","article-title":"Protection from obesity-induced insulin resistance in mice lacking TNF-alpha function","volume":"389","author":"Uysal","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2010-0659","article-title":"Low-grade hypothalamic inflammation leads to defective thermogenesis, insulin resistance, and impaired insulin secretion","volume":"152","author":"Arruda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E47","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00026.2010","article-title":"Central administration of interleukin-4 exacerbates hypothalamic inflammation and weight gain during high-fat feeding","volume":"299","author":"Thaler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3616","article-title":"Obesity- and aging-induced excess of central transforming growth factor-\u03b2 potentiates diabetic development via an RNA stress response","volume":"20","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2013.1214","article-title":"Expression and activity of the TLR4\/NF-\u03baB signaling pathway in mouse intestine following administration of a short-term high-fat diet","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-1286-1_6","article-title":"Glial Regulation of Energy Metabolism","volume":"1090","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.05.021","article-title":"Hypothalamic Microinflammation\u00bb Paradigm in Aging and Metabolic Diseases","volume":"30","author":"Cai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0b013e32832fa5c4","article-title":"Toll-like receptor signaling links dietary fatty acids to the metabolic syndrome","volume":"20","author":"Fessler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.70.113006.100707","article-title":"Mechanisms of leptin action and leptin resistance","volume":"70","author":"Myers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI34260","article-title":"Insulin sensitivity: Modulation by nutrients and inflammation","volume":"118","author":"Schenk","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12820","article-title":"Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome","volume":"505","author":"David","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2008.02.015","article-title":"Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome","volume":"3","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1038\/4441022a","article-title":"Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity","volume":"444","author":"Ley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6ra14","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3000322","article-title":"The effect of diet on the human gut microbiome: A metagenomic analysis in humanized gnotobiotic mice","volume":"1","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malesza, I.J., Malesza, M., Walkowiak, J., Mussin, N., Walkowiak, D., Aringazina, R., Bartkowiak-Wieczorek, J., and M\u0105dry, E. (2021). High-Fat, Western-Style Diet, Systemic Inflammation, and Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10113164"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16504","article-title":"Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations","volume":"529","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2011.01.012","article-title":"The gut microbiome as therapeutic target","volume":"130","author":"Cani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.06.013","article-title":"Meta-Analysis Reveals Reproducible Gut Microbiome Alterations in Response to a High-Fat Diet","volume":"26","author":"Bisanz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G589","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00488.2011","article-title":"Saturated fat stimulates obesity and hepatic steatosis and affects gut microbiota composition by an enhanced overflow of dietary fat to the distal intestine","volume":"303","author":"Derrien","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.02873-0","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila gen. nov., sp. nov., a human intestinal mucin-degrading bacterium","volume":"54","author":"Derrien","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01804","article-title":"Protective Effect of Akkermansia muciniphila against Immune-Mediated Liver Injury in a Mouse Model","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21618","DOI":"10.1038\/srep21618","article-title":"Correlations of Fecal Metabonomic and Microbiomic Changes Induced by High-fat Diet in the Pre-Obesity State","volume":"6","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.21122","article-title":"Effects of dietary fat profile on gut permeability and microbiota and their relationships with metabolic changes in mice","volume":"23","author":"Lam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.4161\/gmic.1.4.12778","article-title":"Mucin-bacterial interactions in the human oral cavity and digestive tract","volume":"1","author":"Derrien","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam, Y.Y., Ha, C.W.Y., Campbell, C.R., Mitchell, A.J., Dinudom, A., Oscarsson, J., Cook, D.I., Hunt, N.H., Caterson, I.D., and Holmes, A.J. (2012). Increased gut permeability and microbiota change associate with mesenteric fat inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in diet-induced obese mice. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034233"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2337\/db06-1491","article-title":"Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"56","author":"Cani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K.-A., Gu, W., Lee, I.-A., Joh, E.-H., and Kim, D.-H. (2012). High fat diet-induced gut microbiota exacerbates inflammation and obesity in mice via the TLR4 signaling pathway. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0047713"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e014004","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-014004","article-title":"Investigating the relationship between precocious puberty and obesity: A cross-sectional study in Shanghai, China","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00846","article-title":"Hypothalamic Microglial Activation in Obesity: A Mini-Review","volume":"12","author":"Mendes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.22580","article-title":"Hormones and diet, but not body weight, control hypothalamic microglial activity: Hypothalamic Microglia in Obesity","volume":"62","author":"Gao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-0146","article-title":"Thelarche, pubarche, and menarche attainment in children with normal and elevated body mass index","volume":"123","author":"Rosenfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10972","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1834399100","article-title":"Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism due to loss of function of the KiSS1-derived peptide receptor GPR54","volume":"100","author":"Genin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980019002349","article-title":"Greater adherence to a Mediterranean-like diet is associated with later breast development and menarche in peripubertal girls","volume":"23","author":"Szamreta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2011.00461.x","article-title":"Beyond overweight: Nutrition as an important lifestyle factor influencing timing of puberty","volume":"70","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1079\/PHN2002261","article-title":"A cohort study of dietary fibre intake and menarche","volume":"5","author":"Koo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/152.5.446","article-title":"Relation of childhood diet and body size to menarche and adolescent growth in girls","volume":"152","author":"Berkey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2013.04.005","article-title":"Dietary flavonol intake is associated with age of puberty in a longitudinal cohort of girls","volume":"33","author":"Mervish","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-2491","article-title":"decline in age at breast development: The Copenhagen Puberty Study","volume":"123","author":"Aksglaede","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.115.226456","article-title":"Higher Childhood Red Meat Intake Frequency Is Associated with Earlier Age at Menarche","volume":"146","author":"Jansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.100958","article-title":"Consumption of caffeinated and artificially sweetened soft drinks is associated with risk of early menarche","volume":"102","author":"Mueller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.114934","article-title":"Dietary protein intake throughout childhood is associated with the timing of puberty","volume":"140","author":"Gunther","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.2.447","article-title":"Animal protein intake, serum insulin-like growth factor I, and growth in healthy 2.5-y-old Danish children","volume":"80","author":"Hoppe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiley, A. (2011). Milk intake and total dairy consumption: Associations with early menarche in NHANES 1999\u20132004. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0014685"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980010001461","article-title":"Diet throughout childhood and age at menarche in a contemporary cohort of British girls","volume":"13","author":"Rogers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a116850","article-title":"Dietary fat and sports activity as determinants for age at menarche","volume":"138","author":"Merzenich","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.115.214270","article-title":"Milk Consumption after Age 9 Years Does Not Predict Age at Menarche","volume":"145","author":"Carwile","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenwaks, Z., and Wassarman, P.M. (2014). Human Fertility, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0659-8"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2013.10.015","article-title":"Cellular mechanisms and integrative timing of neuroendocrine control of GnRH secretion by kisspeptin","volume":"382","author":"Beltramo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2012.02381.x","article-title":"A Novel Reproductive Peptide, Phoenixin","volume":"25","author":"Yosten","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Billert, M., Rak, A., Nowak, K., and Skrzypski, M. (2020). Phoenixin: More than Reproductive Peptide. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21218378"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/1440-1681.13061","article-title":"The Gn RH analogues affect novel neuropeptide SMIM 20\/phoenixin and GPR 173 receptor expressions in the female rat hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal (HPG) axis","volume":"46","author":"Filipczyk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa035322","article-title":"The GPR54 Gene as a Regulator of Puberty","volume":"349","author":"Seminara","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-19-0025","article-title":"Effect of the neuropeptide phoenixin and its receptor GPR173 during folliculogenesis","volume":"158","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00838","article-title":"Phoenixin Expression Is Regulated by the Fatty Acids Palmitate, Docosahexaenoic Acid and Oleate, and the Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Bisphenol A in Immortalized Hypothalamic Neurons","volume":"12","author":"McIlwraith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3015","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI28898","article-title":"TLR4 links innate immunity and fatty acid\u2013induced insulin resistance","volume":"116","author":"Shi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000919","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1000919","article-title":"Precocious puberty and microbiota: The role of the sex hormone\u2013gut microbiome axis","volume":"13","author":"Calcaterra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894070","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1894070","article-title":"The impact of the gut microbiota on the reproductive and metabolic endocrine system","volume":"13","author":"Qi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1134082","article-title":"Formation of short chain fatty acids by the gut microbiota and their impact on human metabolism","volume":"7","author":"Morrison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025","article-title":"The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids From Gut Microbiota in Gut-Brain Communication","volume":"11","author":"Silva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00041.2018","article-title":"Free Fatty Acid Receptors in Health and Disease","volume":"100","author":"Kimura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R37","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-13-0131","article-title":"The gut microbiome: The role of a virtual organ in the endocrinology of the host","volume":"218","author":"Evans","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4681","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S279901","article-title":"p53 Mediates GnRH Secretion via Lin28\/let-7 System in GT1-7 Cells","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"DMSO"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22121","article-title":"Genetic risk for earlier menarche also influences peripubertal body mass index","volume":"150","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.386","article-title":"Meta-analysis of genome-wide association data identifies two loci influencing age at menarche","volume":"41","author":"Perry","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.110.5.903","article-title":"Is obesity associated with early sexual maturation? A comparison of the association in American boys versus girls","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3214","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2008-1733","article-title":"Postnatal development of an estradiol-kisspeptin positive feedback mechanism implicated in puberty onset","volume":"150","author":"Clarkson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1212","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00461.2009","article-title":"Sex differences in the regulation of Kiss1\/NKB neurons in juvenile mice: Implications for the timing of puberty","volume":"297","author":"Kauffman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/2\/241\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:19:20Z","timestamp":1760120360000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/2\/241"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,29]]},"references-count":171,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["children10020241"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children10020241","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,29]]}}}