{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T04:00:59Z","timestamp":1791000059632,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]],"date-time":"2023-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681171200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The current study applied a family systems approach to examine dyadic parental risk factors linked with mother\u2013father co-involved physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse. Parental substance use, mental health problems, disability and medical conditions, inadequate housing, economic insecurity, intimate partner violence, and prior maltreatment history were investigated as key risk factors at the dyadic parental level. Logistic regression analysis was conducted using national child welfare administrative data from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. The results showed differential associations between risk factors and four child maltreatment types: physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Intimate partner violence was associated with higher odds of mother\u2013father co-involved neglect and emotional abuse. Parental substance use, inadequate housing, and prior maltreatment history were all associated with higher odds of mother\u2013father co-involved neglect, but lower odds of physical abuse. Parental disability and medical conditions were associated with higher odds of mother-father co-involved sexual abuse, whereas parental substance use was associated with lower odds of sexual abuse. Implications include more nuanced ways of addressing multiple risk factors within the family to prevent future occurrences of child maltreatment involving both mothers and fathers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10040707","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T02:57:08Z","timestamp":1681268228000},"page":"707","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Father\u2013Mother Co-Involvement in Child Maltreatment: Associations of Prior Perpetration, Parental Substance Use, Parental Medical Conditions, Inadequate Housing, and Intimate Partner Violence with Different Maltreatment Types"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2805-9277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joyce Y.","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2318-2823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susan","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"},{"name":"Department of Social Welfare, College of Social Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5402-3636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keunhye","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Work, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelise","family":"Radney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stacey L.","family":"Shipe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social Work, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0895-1949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Garrett T.","family":"Pace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Work, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2022, April 06). Child Maltreatment Report 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.acf.hhs.gov\/cb\/report\/child-maltreatment-2020."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Kobulsky, J.M., and Wildfeuer, R. (2022, September 01). Child Protective Services-Investigated Maltreatment by Fathers: Distinguishing Characteristics and Disparate Outcomes; 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.frpn.org\/sites\/default\/files\/FRPN_CPS-Maltreatment_At-A-Glance_090819_R1-1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.01259","article-title":"Understanding Families as Systems","volume":"12","author":"Cox","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20161118","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-1118","article-title":"Mental and Physical Health of Children in Foster Care","volume":"138","author":"Turney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minuchin, P. (1974). Families and Family Therapy, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674041127"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.48.1.243","article-title":"Families as Systems","volume":"48","author":"Cox","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.2307\/1129720","article-title":"Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy","volume":"56","author":"Minuchin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/01926187.2013.772872","article-title":"Therapy for childhood sexual abuse survivors using attachment theory and family systems theory orientations","volume":"42","author":"Karakurt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559520950828","article-title":"Distinguishing Characteristics and Disparities in Child Protective Services-Investigated Maltreatment by Fathers","volume":"26","author":"Kobulsky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP13092","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211001484","article-title":"The Effects of Father-Perpetration of Maltreatment on Adolescent Health Risk","volume":"37","author":"Kobulsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/sop2.10","article-title":"Foster Care: How We Can, and Should, Do More for Maltreated Children","volume":"33","author":"Font","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Policy Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Children\u2019s Bureau (2023, March 15). Title IV-E Prevention Program, Available online: https:\/\/www.acf.hhs.gov\/cb\/title-iv-e-prevention-program."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2018.01.006","article-title":"Risk factors for child neglect: A meta-analytic review","volume":"77","author":"Mulder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-1789(00)00024-0","article-title":"Risk factors for child neglect","volume":"6","author":"Schumacher","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/0145-2134(92)90107-3","article-title":"Mother\u2019s age and risk for physical abuse","volume":"16","author":"Connelly","year":"1992","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2744","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-021-02017-y","article-title":"Understanding Risk and Protective Factors for Maternal Maltreatment: A Population-Based Comparative Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Kuluk","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Child Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2010.06.001","article-title":"Young mother\u2013father dyads and maternal harsh parenting behavior","volume":"34","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-1789(00)00023-9","article-title":"Risk factors for child sexual abuse","volume":"6","author":"Black","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aggress Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200303000-00006","article-title":"Ten-year research update review: Child sexual abuse","volume":"42","author":"Putnam","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-7-22","article-title":"Lessons learned from child sexual abuse research: Prevalence, outcomes, and preventive strategies","volume":"7","author":"Daigneault","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2003.09.012","article-title":"Prevalence and demographic correlates of childhood maltreatment in an adult community sample","volume":"28","author":"Scher","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(96)00127-5","article-title":"Sexually abused children in a national survey of parents: Methodological issues","volume":"21","author":"Finkelhor","year":"1997","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7358(99)00022-7","article-title":"Racial, ethnic, and cultural factors of childhood sexual abuse: A selected review of the literature","volume":"20","author":"Kenny","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2206.2006.00398.x","article-title":"Research Review: Risk and resilience in cases of emotional abuse","volume":"11","author":"Iwaniec","year":"2006","journal-title":"Child Fam. Soc. Work"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1300\/J146v01n01_09","article-title":"Risk Factors for the Occurrence of Child Abuse and Neglect","volume":"1","author":"Sedlak","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Aggress. Maltreatment Trauma"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Manion, I.G., and Wilson, S.K. (1995). An Examination of the Association between Histories of Maltreatment and Adolescent Risk Behaviours, National Clearinghouse on Family Violence. Available online: https:\/\/publications.gc.ca\/collections\/Collection\/H72-21-139-1995E.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-1789(00)00022-7","article-title":"Risk factors for child psychological abuse","volume":"6","author":"Black","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aggress Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2022, September 01). Child Maltreatment 2002, Available online: https:\/\/www.acf.hhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/cb\/child_maltreatment_2002.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect (2022, February 10). NCANDS Child File Codebook, Available online: https:\/\/www.ndacan.acf.hhs.gov\/datasets\/pdfs_user_guides\/ncands-child-file-codebook.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000003374","article-title":"Comparing fatal child abuse involving biological and surrogate parents","volume":"92","author":"Presser","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sedlak, A.J., Mattenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Green, A., and Li, S. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS\u20134): Report to Congress Executive Summary, Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.","DOI":"10.1037\/e565022012-001"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Children\u2019s Bureau (2022, September 01). Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Available online: https:\/\/www.childwelfare.gov\/pubpdfs\/define.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1177\/107755902237261","article-title":"Emotional Abuse in Children: Variations in Legal Definitions and Rates Across the United States","volume":"7","author":"Hamarman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1177\/10775595211001926","article-title":"On racial disparities in child abuse reports: Exploratory mapping the 2018 NCANDS","volume":"26","author":"Luken","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Chatterjee, S., and Price, B. (1991). Regression Analysis by Example, Wiley. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"StataCorp (2021). Stata Statistical Software: Release 17, StataCorp LLC."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Muth\u00e9n, L.K., and Muth\u00e9n, B.O. (2017). Mplus User\u2019s Guide, Muth\u00e9n & Muth\u00e9n."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Younas, F., and Gutman, L.M. (2022). Parental Risk and Protective Factors in Child Maltreatment: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Trauma Violence Abus., 15248380221134634.","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380221134634"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/0145-2134(92)90064-X","article-title":"Parental substance abuse and the nature of child maltreatment","volume":"16","author":"Famularo","year":"1992","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.09.015","article-title":"Does parental substance use always engender risk for children? Comparing incidence rate ratios of abusive and neglectful behaviors across substance use behavior patterns","volume":"76","author":"Kepple","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2022.105696","article-title":"Domains of housing insecurity: Associations with child maltreatment risk","volume":"131","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2013.05.002","article-title":"Neighborhood informal social control and child maltreatment: A comparison of protective and punitive approaches","volume":"41","author":"Emery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2018.03.028","article-title":"Intimate partner violence victimization and parenting: A systematic review","volume":"80","author":"Chiesa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2010.03.001","article-title":"The overlap of witnessing partner violence with child maltreatment and other victimizations in a nationally representative survey of youth","volume":"34","author":"Hamby","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bancroft, L., Silverman, J.G., and Ritchie, D. (2012). The Batterer as Parent: Addressing the Impact of Domestic Violence on Family Dynamics, Sage. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4135\/9781452240480"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2206.2012.00892.x","article-title":"Descriptions of fathers\u2019 care by children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV)\u2014Relative neglect and children\u2019s needs","volume":"19","author":"Cater","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Fam. Soc. Work"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-1789(02)00119-2","article-title":"Men who batter and their children: An integrated review","volume":"9","author":"Guille","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aggress Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2012.04.025","article-title":"Intimate partner violence against adult women and its association with major depressive disorder, depressive symptoms and postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"75","author":"Beydoun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2012.12.006","article-title":"Aggressive behavior of children exposed to intimate partner violence: An examination of maternal mental health, maternal warmth and child maltreatment","volume":"37","author":"Holmes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.126722","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence, Maternal Stress, Nativity, and Risk for Maternal Maltreatment of Young Children","volume":"99","author":"Taylor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1177\/088626086001001004","article-title":"Risk factors for child sexual abuse","volume":"1","author":"Finkelhor","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1017\/S1360641798001695","article-title":"The parentified child: Early competence or childhood deprivation?","volume":"3","author":"Barnett","year":"1998","journal-title":"Child Psychol. Psychiatry Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(01)00244-7","article-title":"The predictive impact of domestic violence on three types of child maltreatment","volume":"25","author":"McGuigan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024906315255","article-title":"Children exposed to domestic violence and child abuse: Terminology and taxonomy","volume":"6","author":"Holden","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838018756122","article-title":"The Temporal Impact of Economic Insecurity on Child Maltreatment: A Systematic Review","volume":"21","author":"Byram","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abus."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2006.03.006","article-title":"Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature","volume":"14","author":"Stith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aggress Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1177\/0025802414543855","article-title":"Risk factors for child maltreatment recurrence: An updated systematic review","volume":"55","author":"White","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Law"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1037\/0893-3200.21.2.165","article-title":"Does endorsement of physical discipline matter? Assessing moderating influences on the maternal and child psychological correlates of physical discipline in African American families","volume":"21","author":"McLoyd","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.05.013","article-title":"Distinguishing between Demographic and Contextual Factors Linked to Early Childhood Physical Discipline and Physical Maltreatment among Black Families","volume":"94","author":"Scott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"926","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in physical abuse reporting and child protective services interventions in the United States","volume":"103","author":"Dakil","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Natl. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.13.1603","article-title":"Racial differences in the evaluation of pediatric fractures for physical abuse","volume":"288","author":"Lane","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Capacity Building Center for States (2022, September 01). Seeking Equity Calls Us to Cultural Humility, Available online: https:\/\/cbexpress.acf.hhs.gov\/article\/2021\/april\/seeking-equity-calls-us-to-cultural-humility\/8a3804031b92c150517620efe54bcbdf."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Children\u2019s Bureau (2022, September 01). Child Welfare Practice to Address Racial Disproportionality and Disparity, Available online: https:\/\/www.childwelfare.gov\/pubPDFs\/racial_disproportionality.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Fortson, B.L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M.T., Gilbert, L.K., and Alexander, S.P. (2022, September 01). Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect: A Technical Package for Policy, Norm, and Programmatic Activities, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/violenceprevention\/pdf\/can-prevention-technical-package.pdf."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/4\/707\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:13:46Z","timestamp":1760123626000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/4\/707"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["children10040707"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children10040707","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]}}}