{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T19:08:55Z","timestamp":1789412935919,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]],"date-time":"2023-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Recovery and resilience Plan (NRRP)","award":["PE00000003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000003"]}]},{"name":"National Recovery and resilience Plan (NRRP)","award":["CUP D93C22000890001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D93C22000890001"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University","award":["PE00000003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000003"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University","award":["CUP D93C22000890001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D93C22000890001"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["PE00000003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000003"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["CUP D93C22000890001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D93C22000890001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nutrients have an enormous impact on many hormonal systems and aspects of health, and nutrition status is a crucial regulator of growth and pubertal development in children and adolescents. In this narrative review, we explore the connection between these feeding methods and the timing of puberty to provide a clearer understanding of how infant nutrition might contribute to the early development of puberty. Puberty is a key stage in the transition from childhood to adulthood and the timing of puberty represents a significant biological milestone of growth. Breast milk seems to have a pivotal role in puberty onset, mainly due to its dynamism, which shape indirectly the gut microbiota in early life, besides direct exposure of the baby to the milk microbiota through gut\u2013breast axis. Concerning breast and formula milk and their effects on the onset of puberty, a protective role of the former occurs. As for the potential harmful effects of soy-based formulas and the isoflavones that they contain, the studies reported demonstrate conflicting opinions, underlining the need for further research on this topic. A healthy and well-nourished diet from the earliest stages of life has significant preventive potential for overall well-being, reducing the risk of many health problems later in life.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10101686","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]],"date-time":"2023-10-14T14:38:42Z","timestamp":1697294322000},"page":"1686","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Breast and Formula Milk and Early Puberty Onset"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2137-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Calcaterra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hellas","family":"Cena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Dietetics and Clinical Nutrition, Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Nutrition Unit, General Medicine, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Sottotetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Dietetics and Clinical Nutrition, Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8363-9210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Virginia","family":"Rossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"Loperfido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Dietetics and Clinical Nutrition, Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2795-9874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianvincenzo","family":"Zuccotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science, University of Milano, 20157 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-8210.145073","article-title":"Nutrition and Pubertal Development","volume":"18","author":"Soliman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, Y.H., Woo, Y.J., Lee, J.H., Shin, Y.-L., and Lim, H.-S. (2020). Association between Dietary Habits and Parental Health with Obesity among Children with Precocious Puberty. Children, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/children7110220"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0000000000001035","article-title":"The Link between Obesity and Puberty: What Is New?","volume":"33","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(15)00418-0","article-title":"Pubertal Development and Regulation","volume":"4","author":"Abreu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calcaterra, V., Cena, H., Regalbuto, C., Vinci, F., Porri, D., Verduci, E., Mameli, C., and Zuccotti, G.V. (2021). The Role of Fetal, Infant, and Childhood Nutrition in the Timing of Sexual Maturation. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020419"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calcaterra, V., Verduci, E., Magenes, V.C., Pascuzzi, M.C., Rossi, V., Sangiorgio, A., Bosetti, A., Zuccotti, G., and Mameli, C. (2021). The Role of Pediatric Nutrition as a Modifiable Risk Factor for Precocious Puberty. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11121353"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2023, July 15). Unicef Breastfeeding. Available online: https:\/\/data.unicef.org\/topic\/nutrition\/breastfeeding\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2023, July 15). World Health Organization (WHO) Breastfeeding. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/breastfeeding#tab=tab_1."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy372","article-title":"The Pregnancy and Birth to 24 Months Project: A Series of Systematic Reviews on Diet and Health","volume":"109","author":"Stoody","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verduci, E., D\u2019Elios, S., Cerrato, L., Comberiati, P., Calvani, M., Palazzo, S., Martelli, A., Landi, M., Trikamjee, T., and Peroni, D.G. (2019). Cow\u2019s Milk Substitutes for Children: Nutritional Aspects of Milk from Different Mammalian Species, Special Formula and Plant-Based Beverages. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081739"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2014.12.014","article-title":"Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Promoting and Supporting Breastfeeding","volume":"115","author":"Lessen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057988","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057988","article-title":"Section on Breastfeeding Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk","volume":"150","author":"Meek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2018). ACOG Committee Opinion No. 756: Optimizing Support for Breastfeeding as Part of Obstetric Practice. Obstet. Gynecol., 132, e187\u2013e196.","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002890"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"547","article-title":"Canadian Paediatric Society; Nutrition and Gastroenterology Committee Nutrition for Healthy Term Infants, Six to 24 Months: An Overview","volume":"19","author":"Critch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child. Health"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12767","article-title":"Breast Feeding and Timing of Puberty in Boys and Girls: A Nationwide Cohort Study","volume":"35","author":"Hvidt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq496","article-title":"Impact of Breastfeeding Duration on Age at Menarche","volume":"173","author":"Adair","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.28259","article-title":"Birth and Early Life Influences on the Timing of Puberty Onset: Results from the DONALD (DOrtmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed) Study","volume":"90","author":"Buyken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aghaee, S., Deardorff, J., Greenspan, L.C., Quesenberry, C.P., Kushi, L.H., and Kubo, A. (2019). Breastfeeding and Timing of Pubertal Onset in Girls: A Multiethnic Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study. BMC Pediatr., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-019-1661-x"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-014-1533-9","article-title":"Breastfeeding Versus Formula-Feeding and Girls\u2019 Pubertal Development","volume":"19","author":"Kale","year":"2015","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Health J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e631","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3697","article-title":"Breastfeeding, Childhood Milk Consumption, and Onset of Puberty","volume":"130","author":"Kwok","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6605978","article-title":"Determinants of Age at Menarche in the UK: Analyses from the Breakthrough Generations Study","volume":"103","author":"Morris","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932007002696","article-title":"Predictors of Age at Menarche in the Newcastle Thousand Families Study","volume":"40","author":"Blell","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biosoc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-2489","article-title":"Infancy Weight Gain Predicts Childhood Body Fat and Age at Menarche in Girls","volume":"94","author":"Ong","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3300","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980015000518","article-title":"The Preventive Effect of Breast-Feeding for Longer than 6 Months on Early Pubertal Development among Children Aged 7\u20139 Years in Korea","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2012-302263","article-title":"Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses of Risk Factors for Childhood Overweight Identifiable during Infancy","volume":"97","author":"Weng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502S","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.27113D","article-title":"Can Infant Feeding Choices Modulate Later Obesity Risk?","volume":"89","author":"Koletzko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12587","article-title":"Birth Weight, Early Life Weight Gain and Age at Menarche: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies: Birth Weight Early Life Weight Gain and Age at Menarche","volume":"18","author":"Juul","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgen, C.S., Larsson, M.W., \u00c4ngquist, L., S\u00f8rensen, T.I.A., and Michaelsen, K.F. (2021). Overweight in Childhood of Exclusively Breastfed Infants with a High Weight at 5 Months. Matern. Child. Nutr., 17.","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.13057"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117955651769019","DOI":"10.1177\/1179556517690196","article-title":"Relationship Between Exclusive Breastfeeding and Lower Risk of Childhood Obesity: A Narrative Review of Published Evidence","volume":"11","author":"Uwaezuoke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Insights Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12632","article-title":"Rapid Weight Gain during Infancy and Subsequent Adiposity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Evidence","volume":"19","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2011.241","article-title":"Effects of Obesity on Human Sexual Development","volume":"8","author":"Wagner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0b013e328351c472","article-title":"Early Nutrition Impact on the Insulin-like Growth Factor Axis and Later Health Consequences","volume":"15","author":"Michaelsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, J., Xue, P., Huang, X., Lin, C., and Liu, S. (2022). Diet and Nutrients Intakes during Infancy and Childhood in Relation to Early Puberty: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235004"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mameli, C., Mazzantini, S., and Zuccotti, G.V. (2016). Nutrition in the First 1000 Days: The Origin of Childhood Obesity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13090838"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2020.10.078","article-title":"Birth Size and Rapid Infant Weight Gain-Where Does the Obesity Risk Lie?","volume":"230","author":"Albert","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2014.05.007","article-title":"The Regulation of Reproductive Neuroendocrine Function by Insulin and Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1)","volume":"35","author":"Wolfe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuv054","article-title":"Diet, Growth, and Obesity Development throughout Childhood in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children","volume":"73","author":"Emmett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-022-00522-4","article-title":"The Association between Breastfeeding and Childhood Obesity\/Underweight: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study with Repeated Measured Data","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2021.105101","article-title":"Family Environmental Antecedents of Pubertal Timing in Girls and Boys: A Review and Open Questions","volume":"138","author":"Pham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797610379867","article-title":"Infant Attachment Security and the Timing of Puberty: Testing an Evolutionary Hypothesis","volume":"21","author":"Belsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e318257fac3","article-title":"Breastfeeding and Its Relation to Maternal Sensitivity and Infant Attachment","volume":"33","author":"Tharner","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e321","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.12r07968","article-title":"The Impact of Maternal Depression during Pregnancy on Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"74","author":"Grigoriadis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1289","article-title":"Formula Feeding in Infancy Is Associated with Adolescent Body Fat and Earlier Menarche","volume":"49","author":"Novotny","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Biol. (Noisy-Le-Grand)"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3121","article-title":"Developmental Status of 1-Year-Old Infants Fed Breast Milk, Cow\u2019s Milk Formula, or Soy Formula","volume":"129","author":"Andres","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy188","article-title":"Type of Infant Formula Increases Early Weight Gain and Impacts Energy Balance: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"108","author":"Mennella","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667029","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.667029","article-title":"Association of Soy and Exclusive Breastfeeding with Central Precocious Puberty: A Case-Control Study","volume":"12","author":"Neto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2011.01244.x","article-title":"Early-Life Soy Exposure and Age at Menarche","volume":"26","author":"Adgent","year":"2012","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-018-1668-3","article-title":"Consumption of Soy-Based Infant Formula Is Not Associated with Early Onset of Puberty","volume":"58","author":"Sinai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/10\/1686\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:06:49Z","timestamp":1760130409000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/10\/1686"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["children10101686"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children10101686","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,14]]}}}