{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T11:03:41Z","timestamp":1783940621130,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]],"date-time":"2023-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper offers an in-depth exploration of the intricate relationship between environmental factors and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with a special emphasis on seasonality. It reviews existing research, providing a comprehensive summary of findings and highlighting the multifaceted dimensions of several environmental factors influencing the etiology of ASD. The discussion encompasses various elements, including birth months, maternal health, dietary choices, and vitamin D deficiency, delving into the intricate interplay of seasonality with environmental influences such as viral infections and solar radiation. The present study raises essential questions regarding the timing of environmental influences and the factors contributing to the rising prevalence of ASD. Ultimately, it underscores the need for future epidemiological research to incorporate more extensive investigations of environmental risk factors and employ advanced statistical analyses. This comprehensive overview contributes to a deeper understanding of how environmental factors, particularly seasonality, may be linked to the occurrence of ASD and its increasing prevalence, recognizing the multifaceted and diverse nature of these interactions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children10121851","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T03:33:56Z","timestamp":1701056036000},"page":"1851","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Environmental Influences on Individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders with Special Emphasis on Seasonality: An Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8857-3289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Botsas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Early Childhood and Care, School of Social Sciences, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Education, School of Education and Social Sciences, Frederick University, 3080 Limassol, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6916-2169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eirini","family":"Koidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Performance, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0312-3471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Chatzinikolaou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Performance, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Grouios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Performance, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatemi, S.H. (2015). The Molecular Basis of Autism, Springer. Chapter 1.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2190-4"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-008-9076-8","article-title":"The \u2018Fractionable Autism Triad\u2019: A Review of Evidence from Behavioural, Genetic, Cognitive and Neural Research","volume":"18","author":"Ronald","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.]. Text Review.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatemi, S.H. (2015). The Molecular Basis of Autism, Springer. Chapter 2.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2190-4"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reber, M.E. (2012). The Autism Spectrum: Scientific Foundations and Treatments, Cambridge University Press. Chapter 2.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511978616"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S2","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001161","article-title":"Epidemiologic approaches to neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"7","author":"Susser","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007","article-title":"The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders","volume":"28","author":"Newschaffer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatemi, S.H. (2015). The Molecular Basis of Autism, Springer. Chapter 3.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2190-4"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0b013e328336eb9a","article-title":"What causes autism? Exploring the environmental contribution","volume":"22","author":"Landrigan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00053","article-title":"Gene \u00d7 Environment interactions in autism spectrum disorders: Role of epigenetic mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Tordjman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockman, D.K., and van Schaik, C.P. (2005). Seasonality in Primates. Studies of Living and Enticed Human and Non-Human Primates, The Cambridge University Press. Chapter 11.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542343"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Longman, T. (1998). The Book of Ecclesiastes, Eerdmans Publishing."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"2","article-title":"Translators and Editors","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Mattock","year":"1969","journal-title":"Hippocrates: On Endemic Diseases; Airs, Waters and Places. Arabic and Scientific Texts"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockman, D.K., and van Schaik, C.P. (2005). Seasonality in Primates. Studies of Living and Enticed Human and Non-Human Primates, The Cambridge University Press. Chapter 1.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542343"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockman, D.K., and van Schaik, C.P. (2005). Seasonality in Primates. Studies of Living and Enticed Human and Non-Human Primates, The Cambridge University Press. Chapter 13.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542343"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"274","article-title":"Autism, ethnicity and maternal immigration","volume":"196","author":"Keen","year":"2010","journal-title":"BJPsych"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-014-0643-7","article-title":"Parental migration and Asperger\u2019s syndrome","volume":"24","author":"Lehti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesce. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Clanton, G. (2006). Season-of-Birth of Children in the Other Health Impairment Special Education Category. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Georgia]."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"4","article-title":"Seasonality of birth and psychiatric illness","volume":"18","author":"Nasrallah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1159\/000026499","article-title":"Season of birth in psychiatry","volume":"37","author":"Castrogiovanni","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"363","article-title":"Monthly variation in births of autistic children in North Carolina","volume":"36","author":"Bartlik","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Womens Assoc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00707913","article-title":"Season of birth in infantile autism","volume":"17","author":"Konstantareas","year":"1986","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02211943","article-title":"Epidemiology of infantile autism in southern Ibaraki, Japan: Differences in prevalence in birth cohorts","volume":"18","author":"Tanoue","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02251098","article-title":"Season of birth in infantile autism and other types of childhood psychoses","volume":"25","author":"Mouridsen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1076\/1380-3395(200006)22:3;1-V;FT399","article-title":"Season of Birth Effects in Autism","volume":"22","author":"Stevens","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-012-1473-4","article-title":"Comparison of children with autism spectrum disorder with and without schizophrenia spectrum traits: Gender, season of birth, and mental health risk factors","volume":"42","author":"Gadow","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2007.00919.x","article-title":"Variation in season of birth in singleton and multiple births concordant for autism spectrum disorders","volume":"22","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Perinat."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-0052","article-title":"Neonatal jaundice, autism, and other disorders of psychological development","volume":"126","author":"Maimburg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e31821d0b53","article-title":"Month of conception and risk of autism","volume":"22","author":"Zerbo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.136","article-title":"Association of autistic spectrum disorder with season of birth and conception in a UK cohort","volume":"3","author":"Hebert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e014606","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-014606","article-title":"Month of birth and risk of autism spectrum disorder: A retrospective cohort of male children born in Israel","volume":"7","author":"Shalev","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"69","article-title":"Risk factors and clinical presentations of autism in an Egyptian sample","volume":"44","author":"Elshahawi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Neurol. Psychiatry Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"271","article-title":"A controlled study of the risk factors and clinical picture of children with autism in an Egyptian sample","volume":"48","author":"Kamel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Neurol. Psychiatry Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Manasfi, A., and Al-Hariri, N.A.D. (2023, April 02). Study of Environmental and Familial Risk Factors for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Syria. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchsquare.com\/article\/rs-2159614\/v1.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2159614\/v1"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"331","article-title":"Is it possible to prevent autism?","volume":"9","author":"Chuprikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"JPCPY"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-1036","article-title":"Perinatal and neonatal risk factors for autism: A comprehensive meta-analysis","volume":"128","author":"Gardener","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazumdar, S., Liu, K.-Y., Susser, E., and Bearman, P. (2012). The Disappearing Seasonality of Autism Conceptions in California. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041265"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1992.tb00888.x","article-title":"Season of birth: Issues, approaches and findings for autism","volume":"33","author":"Bolton","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023030911527","article-title":"Season of birth in autism: A fiction revisited","volume":"29","author":"Landau","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2006.163.7.1288","article-title":"Effects of season of birth on autism spectrum disorders: Fact or fiction?","volume":"163","author":"Kolevzon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"12","article-title":"Season of birth effects on Kurdish autistic children","volume":"8","author":"Rahim","year":"2014","journal-title":"DMJ"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005500803764","article-title":"Birth patterns in mentally retarded autistic patients","volume":"30","author":"Nijman","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000254064.92806.13","article-title":"Variation in incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders with season of birth","volume":"18","author":"Parner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015453830880","article-title":"The changing prevalence of autism in California","volume":"32","author":"Croen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazahery, H., Camargo Jr, C.A., Conlon, C., Beck, K.L., Kruger, M.C., and Von Hurst, P.R. (2016). Vitamin D and autism spectrum disorder: A literature review. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8040236"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brockman, D.K., and van Schaik, C.P. (2005). Seasonality in Primates. Studies of Living and Enticed Human and Non-Human Primates, The Cambridge University Press. Chapter 10.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542343"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2779(1998)4:2<121::AID-MRDD9>3.0.CO;2-S","article-title":"Early environmental factors in autism","volume":"4","author":"Rodier","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"229","article-title":"Infections during pregnancy and after birth, and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: A register-based study utilizing a Danish historic birth cohort","volume":"23","author":"Abdallah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Turk Psikiyatri Derg."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7750(05)30005-X","article-title":"Environmental agents and autism: Once and future associations","volume":"30","author":"Hyman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Res. Ment. Retard."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2011.03.001","article-title":"Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism","volume":"17","author":"Patterson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-1006-y","article-title":"Maternal infection requiring hospitalization during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"40","author":"Thorsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1990.tb01373.x","article-title":"Do children with autism have March birthdays?","volume":"82","author":"Gillberg","year":"1990","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022669125423","article-title":"Autistic subjects with comorbid epilepsy: A possible association with viral infections","volume":"29","author":"Barak","year":"1999","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0928-4680(97)00168-5","article-title":"Evidence for an infectious etiology in autism","volume":"4","author":"Ring","year":"1997","journal-title":"Patpohysiology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025023131029","article-title":"Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder","volume":"33","author":"Yamashita","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02125571","article-title":"Clinical review: Medical differential diagnosis and treatment of the autistic syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Coleman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e3181f26e3f","article-title":"Parental autoimmune diseases associated with autism spectrum disorders in offspring","volume":"21","author":"Keil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2015.08.035","article-title":"Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"296","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.159.2.151","article-title":"Maternal autoimmune diseases, asthma and allergies, and childhood autism spectrum disorders: A case-control study","volume":"159","author":"Croen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langridge, A.T., Glasson, E.J., Nassar, N., Jacoby, P., Pennell, C., Hagan, R., and Stanley, F.J. (2013). Maternal conditions and perinatal characteristics associated with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050963"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1995.tb09558.x","article-title":"No association between prenatal exposure to influenza and autism","volume":"92","author":"Dassa","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00159-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00159-17","article-title":"Epidemiological and serological investigation into the role of gestational maternal influenza virus infection and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"2","author":"Mahic","year":"2017","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2016.06.005","article-title":"Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and metaanalysis","volume":"58","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-012-1540-x","article-title":"Is maternal influenza or fever during pregnancy associated with autism or developmental delays? Results from the CHARGE (Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) study","volume":"43","author":"Zerbo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e163609","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2016.3609","article-title":"Association between influenza infection and vaccination during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder","volume":"171","author":"Zerbo","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2175","article-title":"Infection and fever in pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders: Findings from the study to explore early development","volume":"12","author":"Croen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.119","article-title":"Prenatal fever and autism risk","volume":"23","author":"Hornig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1841","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to fever is associated with autism spectrum disorder in the Boston birth cohort","volume":"10","author":"Brucato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-021-00464-4","article-title":"Fever during pregnancy as a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders: Results from a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Antoun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.47363\/PMS\/2022(6)171","article-title":"Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Offspring Following Exposure to Maternal Fever during Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"6","author":"Leshtsinski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1591","article-title":"Maternal use of acetaminophen during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in childhood: A Danish national birth cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Liew","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-3-9","article-title":"Is fever suppression involved in the etiology of autism and neurodevelopmental disorders?","volume":"3","author":"Torres","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMC Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-2016-3","article-title":"Maternal infection during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"45","author":"Zerbo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291703001259","article-title":"No evidence for links between autism, MMR, and measles virus","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2499","article-title":"Prenatal maternal infection and risk for autism in offspring: A meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Tioleco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.2217\/phe.09.5","article-title":"Preventable cases of autism: Relationship between chronic infectious diseases and neurological outcome","volume":"3","author":"Bransfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Health"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12972","article-title":"Association between prenatal antibiotic exposure and autism spectrum disorder among term births: A population-based cohort study","volume":"37","author":"Nitschke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamad, A.F., Alessi-Severini, S., Mahmud, S.M., Brownell, M., and Kuo, I.F. (2019). Prenatal antibiotics exposure and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: A population-based cohort study. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221921"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057346","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057346","article-title":"Autism Risk and Perinatal Antibiotic Use","volume":"150","author":"Nitschke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3866","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-019-04093-y","article-title":"Early Life Exposure to Antibiotics and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review","volume":"49","author":"Horvath","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"1045865","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to antibiotics and risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"e1052","article-title":"Antidepressant exposure during pregnancy and risk of autism in the offspring, 2: Do the new studies add anything new?","volume":"78","author":"Andrade","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCP"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.73","article-title":"Antidepressant use during pregnancy and childhood autism spectrum disorders","volume":"68","author":"Croen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1301449","article-title":"Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism","volume":"369","author":"Hviid","year":"2013","journal-title":"NEJM"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"449","article-title":"Antidepressant exposure in pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders","volume":"15","author":"Christensen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2787","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717001301","article-title":"Autism risk following antidepressant medication during pregnancy","volume":"47","author":"Viktorin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2015.3356","article-title":"Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in children","volume":"170","author":"Boukhris","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2558","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-014-2128-4","article-title":"In utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk for autism spectrum disorder","volume":"44","author":"Gidaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-017-0993-3","article-title":"Antidepressant use during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Systematic review of observational studies and methodological considerations","volume":"16","author":"Morales","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e708","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2015.190","article-title":"Absence of evidence for increase in risk for autism or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder following antidepressant exposure during pregnancy: A replication study","volume":"6","author":"Castro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3232","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010993","article-title":"Antiseizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children","volume":"95","author":"Wiggs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2018.23","article-title":"Prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal risk factors of autism spectrum disorder","volume":"84","author":"Susi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2019.03.012","article-title":"Improving autism perinatal risk factors: A systematic review","volume":"127","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-020-0315-z","article-title":"Maternal blood folate status during early pregnancy and occurrence of autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A study of 62 serum biomarkers","volume":"11","author":"Egorova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyt282","article-title":"Maternal lifestyle and environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders","volume":"43","author":"Lyall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"514026","article-title":"Increasing prevalence, changes in diagnostic criteria, and nutritional risk factors for autism spectrum disorders","volume":"13","author":"Neggers","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISRN Nutr."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20180776","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-0776","article-title":"The risk of offspring psychiatric disorders in the setting of maternal obesity and diabetes","volume":"142","author":"Kong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-015-2549-8","article-title":"Association between maternal obesity and autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34248","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34248","article-title":"Maternal body mass index and risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv081","article-title":"Maternal body mass index during early pregnancy, gestational weight gain, and risk of autism spectrum disorders: Results from a Swedish total population and discordant sibling study","volume":"44","author":"Gardner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-020-03324-w","article-title":"Maternal excessive gestational weight gain as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Kheirouri","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1554","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23228","article-title":"Maternal prepregnancy weight and gestational weight gain in association with autism and developmental disorders in offspring","volume":"29","author":"Matias","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2023, April 02). IDF Policy Briefing: Diabetes in Pregnancy: Protecting Maternal Health. Available online: https:\/\/d-net.idf.org\/en\/library\/196-policy-brief-diabetes-in-pregnancy-protecting-maternal-health.html."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2009). NICE Clinical Guidelines 63: Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management of Diabetes and Its Complications from Pre-Conception to the Postnatal Period., National Institute for Health and Care Excellence."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2004). Gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 27, S88\u2013S90.","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.2007.S88"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613221118430","article-title":"Maternal obesity, diabetes, preeclampsia, and asthma during pregnancy and likelihood of autism spectrum disorder with gastrointestinal disturbances in offspring","volume":"27","author":"Carter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1121","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-2583","article-title":"Maternal metabolic conditions and risk for autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"129","author":"Krakowiak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20152206","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-2206","article-title":"The association of maternal obesity and diabetes with autism and other developmental disabilities","volume":"137","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2105","article-title":"Maternal diabetes and hypertensive disorders in association with autism spectrum disorder","volume":"12","author":"Cordero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.7614","article-title":"Maternal type 1 diabetes and risk of autism in offspring","volume":"320","author":"Xiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-1928-2","article-title":"Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.2707","article-title":"Association of maternal diabetes with autism in offspring","volume":"313","author":"Xiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, D., Ju, R., Dai, J., and Zhang, H. (2023). Autism Spectrum Disorders in Offspring Exposed to Maternal Gestational Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review. Rev. J. Autism. Dev. Disord., Available online: https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40489-023-00380-8#citeas.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40489-023-00380-8"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-6-3","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder and low vitamin D at birth: A sibling control study","volume":"6","author":"Fernell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2013.04.002","article-title":"Etiopathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders: Fitting the pieces of the puzzle together","volume":"81","author":"Gentile","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.12.005","article-title":"Bench to bedside review: Possible role of vitamin D in autism spectrum disorder","volume":"260","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2012.02.015","article-title":"Vitamin D and autism: Clinical review","volume":"33","author":"Fernell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2460","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612826666200415174311","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency and autism spectrum disorder","volume":"26","author":"Siracusano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00987","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders development","volume":"10","author":"Principi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00174","article-title":"Chemicals, nutrition, and autism spectrum disorder: A mini-review","volume":"10","author":"Fujiwara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Ko\u010dovsk\u00e1, E. (2014). A Population Study of Risk Factors for Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Faroe Islands. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow]."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"U\u00e7ar, N., Grant, W.B., Peraita-Costa, I., and Morales Suarez-Varela, M. (2020). How 25 (OH) D levels during pregnancy affect prevalence of autism in children: Systematic review. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082311"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2007.08.016","article-title":"Autism and vitamin D","volume":"70","author":"Cannell","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2021.07.012","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D levels during pregnancy and offspring autism spectrum disorder","volume":"90","author":"Sourander","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2016.01.015","article-title":"Autism: Will vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and early childhood reduce the recurrence rate of autism in newborn siblings?","volume":"88","author":"Stubbs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2216","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2424","article-title":"Maternal Vitamin D Levels During Pregnancy in Association with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Intellectual Disability (ID) in Offspring; Exploring Non-linear Patterns and Demographic Sub-groups","volume":"13","author":"Windham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2016.12.018","article-title":"Developmental vitamin D deficiency and autism: Putative pathogenic mechanisms","volume":"175","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-012-1676-8","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D levels and the autism phenotype among offspring","volume":"43","author":"Whitehouse","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.22942","article-title":"Autism prevalence in the United States with respect to solar UV-B doses: An ecological study","volume":"5","author":"Grant","year":"2013","journal-title":"Derm-Dermato-endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"9","article-title":"Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Khamoushi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.1.4.9500","article-title":"Epidemiologic evidence for supporting the role of maternal vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for the development of infantile autism","volume":"1","author":"Grant","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dermato-Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitzgerald, M., and Yip, J.-J. (2017). Autism\u2014Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications, IntechOpen. Chapter 4.","DOI":"10.5772\/63171"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-019-00506-5","article-title":"Birth seasonality and risk of autism spectrum disorder","volume":"34","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2013.03.003","article-title":"Autism, seasonality and the environmental perturbation of epigenome related vitamin levels","volume":"80","author":"Lucock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rzhetsky, A., Bagley, S.C., Wang, K., Lyttle, C.S., Cook Jr, E.H., Altman, R.B., and Gibbons, R.D. (2014). Environmental and state-level regulatory factors affect the incidence of autism and intellectual disability. PLoS Comput. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003518"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2017.09.012","article-title":"A review of prevalence studies of Autism Spectrum Disorder by latitude and solar irradiance impact","volume":"109","author":"Syed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S100","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(05)80017-4","article-title":"Chronomics of autism and suicide","volume":"59","author":"Halberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-1875-y","article-title":"Urbanicity and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"44","author":"Lauritsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106898","article-title":"In utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution and autism spectrum disorder in children","volume":"158","author":"Carter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000030","article-title":"Brief report: Autism spectrum disorder: Interaction of air pollution with the MET receptor tyrosine kinase gene","volume":"25","author":"Volk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-015-0073-9","article-title":"Air pollution and autism spectrum disorders: Causal or confounded?","volume":"2","author":"Weisskopf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107445","article-title":"The association between prenatal greenspace exposure and Autism spectrum disorder, and the potentially mediating role of air pollution reduction: A population-based birth cohort study","volume":"167","author":"Pagalan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"1","article-title":"Early exposure to agricultural pesticides and the occurrence of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review","volume":"41","author":"Bertoletti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Paul. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10168","article-title":"Maternal residence near agricultural pesticide applications and autism spectrum disorders among children in the California Central Valley","volume":"115","author":"Roberts","year":"2007","journal-title":"EHP"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1104553","article-title":"Tipping the balance of autism risk: Potential mechanisms linking pesticides and autism","volume":"120","author":"Shelton","year":"2012","journal-title":"EHP"},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"i962","article-title":"Prenatal and infant exposure to ambient pesticides and autism spectrum disorder in children: Population-based case-control study","volume":"364","author":"Ling","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biosca-Brull, J., P\u00e9rez-Fern\u00e1ndez, C., Mora, S., Carrillo, B., Pinos, H., Conejo, N.M., and Colomina, M.T. (2021). Relationship between autism spectrum disorder and pesticides: A systematic review of human and preclinical models. IJERPH, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18105190"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.07.024","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder prevalence and proximity to industrial facilities releasing arsenic, lead or mercury","volume":"536","author":"Dickerson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2008.02.001","article-title":"Proximity to point sources of environmental mercury release as a predictor of autism prevalence","volume":"15","author":"Palmer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15949","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-8928-2","article-title":"The association between air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000983","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in relation to autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability","volume":"30","author":"Hamra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dvv012","DOI":"10.1093\/eep\/dvv012","article-title":"DNA methylation: A mechanism linking environmental chemical exposures to risk of autism spectrum disorders?","volume":"2","author":"Keil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Epigenet."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13028","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to common environmental factors affects brain lipids and increases risk of developing autism spectrum disorders","volume":"42","author":"Wong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2010.00223","article-title":"Prenatal maternal stress associated with ADHD and autistic traits in early childhood","volume":"1","author":"Ronald","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1111\/ped.12822","article-title":"Maternal stress and perinatal features in autism and attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"58","author":"Say","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Int."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1866","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1830","article-title":"Prenatal maternal stress events and phenotypic outcomes in Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"10","author":"Varcin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2013.447","article-title":"Association of maternal exposure to childhood abuse with elevated risk for autism in offspring","volume":"70","author":"Roberts","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejtd.2019.02.001","article-title":"Association between prenatal exposure to the Haiti 2010 earthquake, consequent maternal PTSD and autistic symptoms in offspring","volume":"4","author":"Blanc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Trauma Dissociat."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrc.21026","article-title":"Using natural disasters to study the effects of prenatal maternal stress on child health and development","volume":"96","author":"King","year":"2012","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. Part C Embryo Today Rev."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2014.04.034","article-title":"Prenatal maternal stress predicts autism traits in 6\u00bd year-old children: Project Ice Storm","volume":"219","author":"Walder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.12054","article-title":"An incidence study of diagnosed autism-spectrum disorders among immigrants to the Netherlands","volume":"128","author":"Termorshuizen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361309353614","article-title":"Risk factors for autism and Asperger syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Haglund","year":"2011","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.111.095125","article-title":"Migration and autism-spectrum disorder: Population-based study","volume":"201","author":"Magnusson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2010.03812.x","article-title":"Prevalence of autism in children of Somali origin living in Stockholm: Brief report of an at-risk population","volume":"52","author":"Gillberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehti, V., Hinkka-Yli-Salom\u00e4ki, S., Cheslack-Postava, K., Gissler, M., Brown, A.S., and Sourander, A. (2013). The risk of childhood autism among second-generation migrants in Finland: A case\u2013control study. BMC Pediatr., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-13-171"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1573-7861.2011.01238.x","article-title":"Risk as social context: Immigration policy and autism in California","volume":"26","author":"Fountain","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sociol. Forum"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2013.13010078","article-title":"Fetal and sociocultural environments and autism","volume":"170","author":"Lord","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volemar, F. (2007). Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, The Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511544446"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e63","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-3928","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorders and race, ethnicity, and nativity: A population-based study","volume":"134","author":"Becerra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2011.09.001","article-title":"Association between parental nativity and autism spectrum disorder among US-born non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children, 2007 National Survey of Children\u2019s Health","volume":"5","author":"Schieve","year":"2012","journal-title":"Disabil. Health J."},{"key":"ref_171","first-page":"7","article-title":"Prenatal risk factors for autism: Comprehensive meta-analysis","volume":"195","author":"Gardener","year":"2009","journal-title":"BJPsych."},{"key":"ref_172","first-page":"2","article-title":"Autism\u2013a multifaceted diffuse pathology","volume":"18","author":"Ptacek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatry J."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.2010.01662.x","article-title":"Prevalence of autism according to maternal immigrant status and ethnic origin","volume":"123","author":"Dealberto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand"},{"key":"ref_174","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2023, April 02). The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders. 1993; World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9241544228."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.11.001","article-title":"Genetic epidemiology and insights into interactive genetic and environmental effects in autism spectrum disorders","volume":"77","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(22)00264-4","article-title":"Maternal infection during pregnancy and likelihood of autism and intellectual disability in children in Sweden: A negative control and sibling comparison cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Brynge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1080\/01688639408402689","article-title":"Fall conception increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorder in offspring","volume":"16","author":"Liederman","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1162\/REST_a_00314","article-title":"Season of birth and later outcomes: Old questions, new answers","volume":"95","author":"Buckles","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stat"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025054610557","article-title":"Epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders: An update","volume":"33","author":"Fombonne","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e31819e7203","article-title":"Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders","volume":"65","author":"Fombonne","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/12\/1851\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:30:25Z","timestamp":1760131825000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/10\/12\/1851"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]},"references-count":180,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["children10121851"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children10121851","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]]}}}