{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T18:20:06Z","timestamp":1773771606532,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,25]],"date-time":"2024-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706140800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Innovation and Technology Commission of the HKSAR Government","award":["P0041205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0041205"]}]},{"name":"PolyU Research Centre for Sharp Vision","award":["P0041205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0041205"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study explores whether children\u2019s refractive errors and visual behaviors reverted to pre-COVID-19 levels a year after normal schooling resumed in Hong Kong as well as the impact of corneal and internal astigmatism on refractive astigmatism development. Vision survey data and questionnaire results collected in 2022 (n = 119) and 2020 (n = 173) were compared. Cross-sectional data showed similar proportions of astigmatism (cylindrical power \u2265 0.75 D) in the 2020 (49.1%) and 2022 cohorts (55.5%). Despite a 0.28 D increase in corneal astigmatism, a compensatory 0.24 D increase in internal astigmatism of opposite direction kept refractive astigmatism relatively stable. The questionnaire data showed that children spent an additional 0.5 h\/day outdoors on weekends post-resumption of normal schooling but engaged in more near-work activities, especially non-screen near-work, by approximately 1 h\/day on both weekdays and weekends. These findings were supported by longitudinal data from 72 children who participated in both surveys. This study highlights the significant role of corneal and internal astigmatism in refractive astigmatism changes. Despite the return to in-person classes, children\u2019s total near-work time increased and astigmatism remained high. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to reduce the high environmental risks for refractive error development in children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children11020154","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,25]],"date-time":"2024-01-25T03:59:42Z","timestamp":1706155182000},"page":"154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Compensatory Interactions between Corneal and Internal Astigmatism despite Lifestyle Changes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9019-9150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Liang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0039-2182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Byung-Soo","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5177-129X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chea-Su","family":"Kee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"},{"name":"Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong"},{"name":"Research Centre for SHARP Vision (RCSV), The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9588-2891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tsz-Wing","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"},{"name":"Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong"},{"name":"Research Centre for SHARP Vision (RCSV), The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.07.034","article-title":"Digital screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic: Risk for a further myopia boom?","volume":"223","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. 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