{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T06:31:46Z","timestamp":1787725906074,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707436800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Cognitive functions represent foundational factors for mental health and quality of life (QoL). In Tourette syndrome (TS), psychiatric comorbidities are common and have been inconsistently reported to affect the cognition and QoL of patients, while the role of tic disorder duration has not been yet explored. Methods: To examine how comorbidities and TS duration may influence cognition and QoL, N = 80 children with TS (6\u201316 years) were evaluated using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV). Standardized questionnaires were used to assess the presence and severity of TS main comorbidities and QoL. Data were interpreted using linear correlations, regression, and mediation analysis. Results: Depression and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms accounted for poorer cognitive performance. Anxiety oppositely predicted better cognitive performance, while no significant role for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) was observed. Disease duration was associated with lower total IQ, verbal reasoning, and working memory abilities. Depression, anxiety, and TS duration also deeply influenced QoL measures. Conclusions: TS common comorbidities have a differential impact on the cognitive abilities of children and adolescents, which translates into a complex influence on their perceived QoL. A longer clinical history of tics was related to worse cognitive outcomes, which prompts further consideration of disease duration in both clinical and research settings involving children and adolescents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children11020226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T08:12:03Z","timestamp":1707466323000},"page":"226","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Comorbidities and Disease Duration in Tourette Syndrome: Impact on Cognition and Quality of Life of Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3497-0414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Conte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9200-2772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carola","family":"Costanza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences for Health Promotion and Mother and Child Care \u201cG. D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4451-3388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Novelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5473-0656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronica","family":"Scarselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Arigliani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7426-8905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5010-8162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Baglioni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Terrinoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0084-6914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Flavia","family":"Chiarotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2050-632X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Cardona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5\u00ae), American Psychiatric Association.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2016.00097","article-title":"Comorbidities, Social Impact, and Quality of Life in Tourette Syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Eapen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2009.09.002","article-title":"Clinical course of Tourette syndrome","volume":"67","author":"Bloch","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Tourette syndrome in a longitudinal perspective. Clinical course of tics and comorbidities, coexisting psychopathologies, phenotypes and predictors","volume":"65","author":"Groth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dan. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2000.tb00346.x","article-title":"An international perspective on Tourette syndrome: Selected findings from 3500 individuals in 22 countries","volume":"42","author":"Freeman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.2650","article-title":"Lifetime prevalence, age of risk, and genetic relationships of comorbid psychiatric disorders in Tourette syndrome","volume":"72","author":"Hirschtritt","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00415","article-title":"New Insights into Clinical Characteristics of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: Findings in 1032 Patients from a Single German Center","volume":"10","author":"Sambrani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.09.021","article-title":"Systematic review of co-occurring OCD and TD: Evidence for a tic-related OCD subtype?","volume":"95","author":"Kloft","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2020.1826932","article-title":"The severity of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Tourette syndrome and its relationship with premonitory urges: A meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073808316370","article-title":"Validation of the presence of comorbidities in a Danish clinical cohort of children with Tourette syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Hjalgrim","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.59.3.414","article-title":"The behavioral spectrum of tic disorders: A community-based study","volume":"59","author":"Kurlan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.09.019","article-title":"Rage attacks in Tourette Syndrome and Chronic Tic Disorder: A systematic review","volume":"119","author":"Conte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.23434","article-title":"Clinical correlates of quality of life in Tourette syndrome","volume":"26","author":"Eddy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2011.11.006","article-title":"Long term clinical course of Tourette syndrome","volume":"34","author":"Rizzo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2013.05.019","article-title":"On being your own worst enemy: An investigation of socially inappropriate symptoms in Tourette syndrome","volume":"47","author":"Eddy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.22900","article-title":"Health-related quality of life in patients with Gilles de la Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"25","author":"Dodel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Off. J. Mov. Disord. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2015.10.012","article-title":"A Theoretical review of cognitive biases and deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"121","author":"Hezel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.11.002","article-title":"Heterogeneity and Subtyping in Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder-Considerations for Emerging Research Using Person-Centered Computational Approaches","volume":"88","author":"Karalunas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.08.023","article-title":"A meta-analytic study of event rate effects on Go\/No-Go performance in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"72","author":"Metin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852918001207","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in major depressive disorder","volume":"24","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13385","article-title":"Functional and cognitive impairment in the first episode of depression: A systematic review","volume":"145","author":"Varghese","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713002535","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Rock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2018.10.004","article-title":"Cognitive Training Does Not Enhance General Cognition","volume":"23","author":"Sala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1080\/87565640701360981","article-title":"Impact of executive functioning and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on children\u2019s peer relations and school performance","volume":"32","author":"Diamantopoulou","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579404040143","article-title":"Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change","volume":"16","author":"Masten","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579499001996","article-title":"Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence","volume":"11","author":"Masten","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2019.12.105","article-title":"What is good mental health? A scoping review","volume":"31","author":"Nieman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morand-Beaulieu, S., Leclerc, J.B., Valois, P., Lavoie, M.E., O\u2019Connor, K.P., and Gauthier, B. (2017). A Review of the Neuropsychological Dimensions of Tourette Syndrome. Brain Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7080106"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.12.066","article-title":"Neurocognitive correlates of treatment response in children with Tourette\u2019s Disorder","volume":"261","author":"Chang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617700000631","article-title":"Executive function in children with Tourette syndrome and\/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"1","author":"Harris","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. JINS"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054714545536","article-title":"Set-Shifting Deficits: A Possible Neurocognitive Endophenotype for Tourette Syndrome without ADHD","volume":"21","author":"Eddy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2017.06.009","article-title":"Procedural learning in Tourette syndrome, ADHD, and comorbid Tourette-ADHD: Evidence from a probabilistic sequence learning task","volume":"117","author":"Shilon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1080\/15622975.2018.1430375","article-title":"Neurophysiological correlate of emotional regulation in cognitive and motor deficits in Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"20","author":"Kalsi","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry Off. J. World Fed. Soc. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.27406","article-title":"Inhibition is impaired in children with obsessive-compulsive symptoms but not in those with tics","volume":"33","author":"Mancini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Off. J. Mov. Disord. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-022-01475-9","article-title":"Baseline cognitive functioning can predict the trajectory of acute treatment in first-episode major depressive disorder","volume":"273","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2019.21.3\/amccleery","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in psychotic illness: Prevalence, profile of impairment, developmental course, and treatment considerations","volume":"21","author":"McCleery","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1177\/21677026211030211","article-title":"Well-Being and Cognition Are Coupled During Development: A Preregistered Longitudinal Study of 1136 Children and Adolescents","volume":"10","author":"Fuhrmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gale, C.R., Cooper, R., Craig, L., Elliott, J., Kuh, D., Richards, M., Starr, J.M., Whalley, L.J., and Deary, I.J. (2012). Cognitive Function in Childhood and Lifetime Cognitive Change in Relation to Mental Wellbeing in Four Cohorts of Older People. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0044860"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2019.10.047","article-title":"Cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: An expert working group white paper on core techniques","volume":"215","author":"Bowie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2015.11.008","article-title":"New treatment models for compulsive disorders","volume":"26","author":"Grant","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. J. Eur. Coll. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1177\/1078390319877952","article-title":"Cognitive Training and Remediation in First-Episode Psychosis: A Literature Review","volume":"26","author":"Miley","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychiatr. Nurses Assoc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903446","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.903446","article-title":"Cognitive remediation for depression vulnerability: Current challenges and new directions","volume":"13","author":"Hoorelbeke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01342750","article-title":"Intellectual, academic, and adaptive functioning of Tourette syndrome children with and without attention deficit disorder","volume":"18","author":"Dykens","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200106000-00014","article-title":"Prospective, Longitudinal Study of Tic, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorders in an Epidemiological Sample","volume":"40","author":"Peterson","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2016.06.048","article-title":"Impact of co-morbid attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder on cognitive function in male children with Tourette syndrome: A controlled study","volume":"243","author":"Termine","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-021-00392-4","article-title":"WISC-IV performance of children with Chronic Tic Disorder, Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: Results from a German clinical study","volume":"15","author":"Wanderer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2006.12.003","article-title":"Disentangling the effects of Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on cognitive and behavioral phenotypes","volume":"29","author":"Rizzo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.46.4.958","article-title":"Neuropsychological status of children with Tourette\u2019s syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"46","author":"Schuerholz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(90)90150-4","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance in children with Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"33","author":"Bornstein","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1993.00540070045013","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s Syndrome in Monozygotic Twins: Relationship of Tic Severity to Neuropsychological Function","volume":"50","author":"Randolph","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3109\/08039480903248096","article-title":"Tourette syndrome in the general child population: Cognitive functioning and self- perception","volume":"64","author":"Khalifa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nord. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2022.152353","article-title":"Early intervention in obsessive-compulsive disorder: From theory to practice","volume":"119","author":"Fontenelle","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-198907000-00015","article-title":"The Yale Global Tic Severity Scale: Initial testing of a clinician-rated scale of tic severity","volume":"28","author":"Leckman","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.21.8.265","article-title":"The Child Behavior Checklist and Related Forms for Assessing Behavioral\/Emotional Problems and Competencies","volume":"21","author":"Achenbach","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Pearson. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t15174-000"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199707000-00021","article-title":"Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data","volume":"36","author":"Kaufman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199706000-00023","article-title":"Children\u2019s Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: Reliability and validity","volume":"36","author":"Scahill","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kovacs, M. (2013). Children\u2019s Depression Inventory, Hogrefe.","DOI":"10.1037\/t04948-000"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"39","article-title":"The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)","volume":"Volume 2","author":"March","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Use of Psychological Testing for Treatment Planning and Outcomes Assessment: Instruments for Children and Adolescents"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Conners, C.K. (2001). Conners\u2019 Rating Scales-Revised Technical Manual, Multi-Health Systems."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1097\/00005650-200108000-00006","article-title":"PedsQLTM 4.0: Reliability and Validity of the Pediatric Quality of Life InventoryTM Version 4.0 Generic Core Scales in Healthy and Patient Populations","volume":"39","author":"Varni","year":"2001","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/09084280802084010","article-title":"Significant factor score variability and the validity of the WISC-III Full Scale IQ in predicting later academic achievement","volume":"15","author":"Freberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.01.009","article-title":"Are cognitive g and academic achievement g one and the same g? An exploration on the Woodcock\u2013Johnson and Kaufman tests","volume":"40","author":"Kaufman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1080\/21683603.2019.1638854","article-title":"Construct validity of the WISC\u2013IV Italian edition: A bifactor examination of the standardization sample: Chi niente sa, di niente dubita","volume":"9","author":"Kush","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sch. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.5296\/jsss.v8i2.18166","article-title":"Exploring the Validity and Reliability of the WISC-IV: A Review of the Literature","volume":"8","author":"Andrikopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Soc. Sci. Stud."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.17.4.486","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale","volume":"17","author":"Storch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.626459","article-title":"Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS): Psychometric Quality of the Gold Standard for Tic Assessment Based on the Large-Scale EMTICS Study","volume":"12","author":"Haas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00615","article-title":"Comparing Models of the Children\u2019s Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS) in an Italian Clinical Sample","volume":"11","author":"Novara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Nobili, M., Alberti, B., and Zuddas, A. (2007). CRS-R. Conners\u2019 Rating Scales. Revised. Manuale, Giunti OS. Available online: https:\/\/iris.unica.it\/handle\/11584\/29461?mode=complete."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20152749","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-2749","article-title":"Diagnostic Accuracy of Rating Scales for Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-analysis","volume":"137","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327752JPA8003_04","article-title":"Factorial Validity of the Conners\u2019 Parent Rating Scale-Revised: Short Form with Psychiatric Outpatients","volume":"80","author":"Kumar","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pers. Assess."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021404613832","article-title":"Self-reported depressive symptoms in a school sample of Italian children and adolescents","volume":"33","author":"Poli","year":"2003","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"134179","article-title":"CDI Scores in Pediatric Psychiatric Inpatients: A Brief Retrospective Static Group Comparison","volume":"2011","author":"Friedberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depress. Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Melchiori, F., Paloscia, C., Giangregorio, A., and Guerini, R. (2017). Manual of Multidimensional Anxiety Scale fo Children Second Edition 2\u2014Italian Version, Hogrefe."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"373","article-title":"The Italian version of the PedsQL in children with rheumatic diseases","volume":"27","author":"Trapanotto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Routledge. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Hayes, A.F. (2017). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis, Second Edition: A Regression-Based Approach, Guilford Publications."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"StataCorp (2019). Stata Statistical Software: Release 16, StataCorp LLC."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-020-09436-6","article-title":"Depression and Cognitive Control across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Dotson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2009.04.022","article-title":"A meta-analysis of depression severity and cognitive function","volume":"119","author":"McDermott","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2006.07.019","article-title":"Mood disorders and Gilles de la Tourette\u2019s syndrome: An update on prevalence, etiology, comorbidity, clinical associations, and implications","volume":"61","author":"Robertson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hovik, K.T., Plessen, K.J., Cavanna, A.E., Skogli, E.W., Andersen, P.N., and \u00d8ie, M. (2015). Cognition, Emotion and Behavior in Children with Tourette\u2019s Syndrome and Children with ADHD-Combined Subtype\u2014A Two-Year Follow-Up Study. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144874"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-012-0337-y","article-title":"Emotional development in children with tics: A longitudinal population-based study","volume":"22","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2004.06.001","article-title":"Neuropsychological functions in anxiety disorders in population-based samples: Evidence of episodic memory dysfunction","volume":"39","author":"Airaksinen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.2.336","article-title":"Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory","volume":"7","author":"Eysenck","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00203","article-title":"The impact of anxiety upon cognition: Perspectives from human threat of shock studies","volume":"7","author":"Robinson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2012.03.007","article-title":"Attentional control deficits in trait anxiety: Why you see them and why you don\u2019t","volume":"92","author":"Berggren","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2010.01062.x","article-title":"The emotional startle effect is disrupted by a concurrent working memory task","volume":"48","author":"King","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2012.01358.x","article-title":"Describing the interplay between anxiety and cognition: From impaired performance under low cognitive load to reduced anxiety under high load","volume":"49","author":"Vytal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1080\/21622965.2019.1596809","article-title":"Can worry and physiological anxiety uniquely predict children and adolescents\u2019 academic achievement and intelligence?","volume":"10","author":"Castagna","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Child"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1097\/00019442-200508000-00007","article-title":"Effects of anxiety versus depression on cognition in later life","volume":"13","author":"Bierman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Off. J. Am. Assoc. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054711428806","article-title":"WISC-IV profiles are associated with differences in symptomatology and outcome in children with ADHD","volume":"17","author":"Thaler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-017-0336-z","article-title":"Processing Speed Predicts Behavioral Treatment Outcomes in Children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder Predominantly Inattentive Type","volume":"46","author":"Adalio","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.02154","article-title":"Processing Speed Mediates the Longitudinal Association between ADHD Symptoms and Preadolescent Peer Problems","volume":"8","author":"Thorsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1017\/neu.2020.17","article-title":"Differentiating depression and ADHD without depression in adults with processing-speed measures","volume":"32","author":"Martiny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychiatr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-017-0971-5","article-title":"The faster internal clock in ADHD is related to lower processing speed: WISC-IV profile analyses and time estimation tasks facilitate the distinction between real ADHD and pseudo-ADHD","volume":"26","author":"Walg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2010.07.007","article-title":"Performance on Wechsler intelligence scales in children with Tourette syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Debes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. EJPN Off. J. Eur. Paediatr. Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2013.09.004","article-title":"The neuropsychology of adult obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Abramovitch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.08.063","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance and predictors of pharmacological treatment response in obsessive compulsive disorder","volume":"317","author":"Alonso","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2007.164.2.335","article-title":"Impaired Cognitive Flexibility and Motor Inhibition in Unaffected First-Degree Relatives of Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"164","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12414","article-title":"Research Review: Neuropsychological test performance in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder--a meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Abramovitch","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"241","article-title":"Depression accounts for executive function deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"14","author":"Basso","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatry. Neuropsychol. Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.07.027","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder and influence of clinical variables","volume":"61","author":"Boget","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.02.006","article-title":"Comparable performance of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and healthy controls for verbal and nonverbal memory accuracy and confidence: Time to forget the forgetfulness hypothesis of OCD?","volume":"166","author":"Moritz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.06.021","article-title":"Resting-state functional connectivity in drug-naive pediatric patients with Tourette syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"129","author":"Tikoo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960979","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.960979","article-title":"White matter alterations in drug-na\u00efve children with Tourette syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"13","author":"Bharti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-021-01327-7","article-title":"The Cerebellum in Drug-naive Children with Tourette Syndrome and Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder","volume":"21","author":"Tikoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613488394","article-title":"Childhood socioeconomic status amplifies genetic effects on adult intelligence","volume":"24","author":"Bates","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanscombe, K.B., Trzaskowski, M., Haworth, C.M.A., Davis, O.S.P., Dale, P.S., and Plomin, R. (2012). Socioeconomic status (SES) and children\u2019s intelligence (IQ): In a UK-representative sample SES moderates the environmental, not genetic, effect on IQ. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030320"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burd, L., Freeman, R.D., Klug, M.G., and Kerbeshian, J. (2005). Tourette Syndrome and learning disabilities. BMC Pediatr., 5.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-5-34"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000550","article-title":"Impact of Tourette Syndrome on School Measures in a Nationally Representative Sample","volume":"39","author":"Claussen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/2\/226\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:57:51Z","timestamp":1760104671000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/2\/226"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["children11020226"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children11020226","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]]}}}