{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T03:00:30Z","timestamp":1782529230099,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]],"date-time":"2024-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Molar Incisor Hypomineralization (MIH) is a prevalent multifactorial developmental dental defect with unclear etiology. This study aimed to identify potential risk factors for MIH among primary school children in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study including children aged 7 to 10 years old, recruited from twelve randomly selected schools located in three regions of Jeddah city, was carried out. The children were examined for MIH and dental caries using the European Academy of Pediatric Dentistry Criteria (2003) and the DMFT\/dmft WHO index. Parents were asked to provide medical and socio-demographic information on their children from their first two years of life. Results: A total of 2010 children were examined, with 888 parents responding to the survey (a 44.2% response rate). Lower maternal education was found to be significantly associated with a decreased adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of MIH (Model 1: p = 0.014, AOR = 0.646, and 95% CI = 0.456 to 0.915; Model 2: p = 0.019, AOR = 0.658, and 95% CI = 0.465 to 0.933). Being an only child, a child\u2019s birth order, type of delivery, breastfeeding, and medical conditions were not associated with MIH. Conclusions: The significant association between MIH and maternal education suggests that further research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms and identify other potential confounding variables.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children11101224","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]],"date-time":"2024-10-09T06:30:03Z","timestamp":1728455403000},"page":"1224","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Molar Incisor Hypomineralization and Related Risk Factors among Primary School Children in Jeddah: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0326-9633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khlood","family":"Baghlaf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ghazal Abdulhadi","family":"Bokhari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatmah Yousef","family":"Aljehani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3279-7877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raneem T.","family":"Shaker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8381-7398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maha","family":"Alshehri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah","family":"Almushali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulaziz","family":"Alharthi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9788-0379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heba Jafar","family":"Sabbagh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drummond, B.K., and Kilpatrick, N. (2015). Planning and Care for Children and Adolescents with Dental Enamel Defects: Etiology, Research and Contemporary Management, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44800-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/adj.12130","article-title":"Three-dimensional analysis of the early development of the dentition","volume":"59","author":"Peterkova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aust. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2009.12.001","article-title":"Systemic disorders and their influence on the development of dental hard tissues: A literature review","volume":"38","author":"Atar","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10024-1898","article-title":"Molar Incisor Hypomineralization","volume":"17","author":"Rao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Contemp. Dent. Pract."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03262714","article-title":"Prevalence and Diagnosis of Molar-Incisor- Hypomineralisation (MIH): A systematic review","volume":"11","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"696","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of molar incisor hypomineralization in the Middle East: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Bukhari","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Taibah Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"110","article-title":"Judgement criteria for molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH) in epidemiologic studies: A summary of the European meeting on MIH held in Athens, 2003","volume":"4","author":"Weerheijm","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-7325.2010.00186.x","article-title":"An epidemiological comparison of Dean\u2019s index and the Developmental Defects of Enamel (DDE) index","volume":"70","author":"Mohamed","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Public. Health Dent."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0722.2006.00294.x","article-title":"The new Enamel Defects Index: Testing and expansion","volume":"114","author":"Elcock","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oral. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s40368-021-00646-x","article-title":"An update of the aetiological factors involved in molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH): A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Garot","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"513","article-title":"Epidemiologic Study of Molar-incisor Hypomineralization in Schoolchildren in North-eastern Brazil","volume":"37","author":"Andrade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-263X.2012.01244.x","article-title":"Risk factors in the occurrence of molar-incisor hypomineralization amongst a group of Iraqi children","volume":"23","author":"Ghanim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234508","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/234508","article-title":"Molar incisor hypomineralization, prevalence, and etiology","volume":"2014","author":"Allazzam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhowaish, L., Baidas, L., Aldhubaiban, M., Bello, L.L., and Al-Hammad, N. (2021). Etiology of Molar-Incisor Hypomineralization (MIH): A Cross-Sectional Study of Saudi Children. Children, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/children8060466"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sdentj.2021.10.004","article-title":"Prevalence and possible aetiological factors of molar incisor hypomineralisation in Saudi children: A cross-sectional study","volume":"34","author":"Almuallem","year":"2022","journal-title":"Saudi Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Bagher, S., Alamoudi, R., Trad, R., Shaker, R., Alamoudi, R., Bader, R., and Sabbagh, H. (2023). Medical Conditions that Could Affect Oral Health Care Among Children Living in Governmental Orphanage Centers: A Case-Control Study. J. King Abdulaziz Univ. Med. Sci., 30."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, September 09). Oral Health Surveys: Basic Methods, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241548649."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazur, M., Corridore, D., Ndokaj, A., Ardan, R., Vozza, I., Babajko, S., and Jedeon, K. (2023). MIH and Dental Caries in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Healthcare, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11121795"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"31","article-title":"Stress level of working and non working women","volume":"3","author":"Patil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Indian Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.4103\/jispcd.JISPCD_130_19","article-title":"Prevalence and Severity of Molar-Incisor Hypomineralization, Maternal Education, and Dental Caries: A Cross-Sectional Study of Mexican Schoolchildren with Low Socioeconomic Status","volume":"9","author":"Frechero","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Prev. Community Dent."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/cdoe.12467","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of systemic exposure associated with molar incisor hypomineralization","volume":"47","author":"Fatturi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Community Dent. Oral. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1111\/cdoe.12229","article-title":"Etiology of molar incisor hypomineralization\u2014A systematic review","volume":"44","author":"Silva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Community Dent. Oral. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034508328334","article-title":"Amoxicillin may cause molar incisor hypomineralization","volume":"88","author":"Laisi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altner, S., Milutinovic, I., and Bekes, K. (2024). Possible Etiological Factors for the Development of Molar Incisor Hypomineralization (MIH) in Austrian Children. Dent. J., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/dj12030044"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khazaei, Y., Harris, C.P., Heinrich, J., Standl, M., and K\u00fchnisch, J. (2021). Association Study on Nutrition in the First Year of Life and Molar-Incisor Hypomineralization (MIH)-Results from the GINIplus and LISA Birth Cohort Studies. Int. J. Env. Res. Public. Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182111411"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03262637","article-title":"Molar-incisor-hypomineralisation (MIH). A retrospective clinical study in Greek children. II. Possible medical aetiological factors","volume":"9","author":"Lygidakis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/10\/1224\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:09:39Z","timestamp":1760112579000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/10\/1224"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["children11101224"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children11101224","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]]}}}