{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T22:58:27Z","timestamp":1791327507495,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]],"date-time":"2024-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733443200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: This study examines child abuse in sports environments through Ecological Systems Theory, revealing the multifaceted nature of abuse and the impact of environmental factors at various levels. Methods: With a study design using the phenomenology approach, a qualitative research method, data were collected through semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 11 Turkish participants, including 5 athletes, 4 coaches, and 2 academics with coaching experience in Sports Sciences. Thematic analysis was used to evaluate the data, categorizing findings into four levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Results: Findings show that at the microsystem level, children are exposed to physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect, largely through interactions with coaches and teammates. Physical abuse includes non-contact forms, like dehydration and forced training, and contact abuse, such as violence from coaches and peers. Emotional abuse manifests through psychological pressures and verbal attacks, creating a toxic environment. At the mesosystem level, excessive parental trust in coaches reduces oversight, leaving children vulnerable. In the exosystem, inadequate supervision of coaches and a lack of response to abuse cases by sports clubs worsen the issue. At the macrosystem level, cultural norms and societal attitudes normalize abuse, especially affecting female athletes. Conclusions: The study highlights the need for comprehensive interventions, including family awareness, stricter coach oversight, and robust policies within sports organizations to protect children. By emphasizing the interaction of individual, familial, and societal factors, this research underscores the importance of collective efforts to ensure safer sports environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children11121487","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]],"date-time":"2024-12-06T03:44:47Z","timestamp":1733456687000},"page":"1487","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Investigating Child Abuse in Sports: An Ecological Systems Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Damla","family":"G\u00fcler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara 06830, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8883-6504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ya\u011fmur","family":"G\u00fcler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Recreation, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Yalova University, Yalova 77200, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0446-537X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caner","family":"Cengiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara 06830, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Semiyha","family":"Tuncel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara 06830, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9058-1918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raci","family":"Karayi\u011fit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara 06830, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2008.051433","article-title":"Definition and constituents of maltreatment in sport: Establishing a conceptual framework for research practitioners","volume":"43","author":"Stirling","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2016-096121","article-title":"International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport","volume":"50","author":"Mountjoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci3030326","article-title":"Child protection in sport: Reflections on thirty years of science and activism","volume":"3","author":"Brackenridge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2013.752173","article-title":"The perceived effects of elite athletes\u2019 experiences of emotional abuse in the coach\u2013athlete relationship","volume":"11","author":"Stirling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.leaqua.2007.03.007","article-title":"An investigation of abusive supervision as a predictor of performance and the meaning of work as a moderator of the relationship","volume":"18","author":"Harris","year":"2007","journal-title":"Leadersh. Q."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1080\/13573322.2015.1063484","article-title":"Sexual abuse and the grooming process in sport: Learning from Bella\u2019s story","volume":"22","author":"Owton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport. Educ. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1300\/J135v07n04_05","article-title":"Elite female swimmers\u2019 experiences of emotional abuse across time","volume":"7","author":"Stirling","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Emot. Abus."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2022.2100026","article-title":"Child sexual abuse of elite athletes: Prevalence, perceptions, and mental health","volume":"31","author":"Timon","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Child Sex. Abus."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norman, R.E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., and Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001349"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.12.013","article-title":"Severe interpersonal violence against children in sport: Associated mental health problems and quality of life in adulthood","volume":"76","author":"Vertommen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child. Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2022.01.003","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and body dysmorphic symptoms: A meta-analysis","volume":"40","author":"Longobardi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Hartill, M., Rulofs, B., Lang, M., Vertommen, T., Allroggen, M., Cirera, E., Diketmueller, R., Kampen, J., Kohl, A., and Martin, M. (2021). CASES: Child abuse in sport: European statistics\u2013project report. CASES: The Prevalence and Characteristics of Interpersonal Violence Against Children Within and Outside Sport in Six European Countries, Edge Hill University."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.25307\/jssr.1150220","article-title":"Cimnastik ve \u00e7ocuk istismar\u0131: Kad\u0131n cimnastik\u00e7ilerin deneyimleri","volume":"7","author":"Ugurlu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spor Bilim. Ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 Derg."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"\u00c7etin, E. (2019). T\u00fcrkiyede bireysel sporlarda \u00e7ocuk istismar\u0131: Elit sporcular \u00f6rne\u011fi. [Master\u2019s Thesis, \u0130stanbul Gedik University]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Toy, A.B., Onal, Y., Alnidelik, Y., Demirli, A., and Moghanlou, A.E. (2023). \u201cAntren\u00f6r destek mi k\u00f6stek mi?\u201d G\u00fcre\u015f antren\u00f6rlerinin m\u00fcsabaka i\u00e7erisinde sporcular\u0131na y\u00f6nelik ihmal ve istismar davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 \u00fczerine bir g\u00f6zlem \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131. J. ROL Sport. Sci., 68\u201387."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Incident of Sexual Harrassment in Turkey on Elite Sportswomen","volume":"10","author":"Sunay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sport J."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kerr, G., Willson, E., and Stirling, A. (2019). Prevalence of Maltreatment Among Current and Former National Team Athletes, University of Toronto."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kerr, G.A., and Stirling, A.E. (2014). Applying a critical ecological approach to the issue of athlete abuse in sport. The Psychology of Sub-Culture in Sport and Physical Activity, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315778495-2"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.03.001","article-title":"Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: A systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Roberts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.05.005","article-title":"Promoting athlete welfare: A proposal for an international surveillance system","volume":"23","author":"Kerr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP10618","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211067003","article-title":"Prevention of sexual violence in sport: A socioecological review","volume":"37","author":"Milroy","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1123\/kr.2019-0016","article-title":"Maltreatment in youth sport: A systemic issue","volume":"8","author":"Kerr","year":"2019","journal-title":"Kinesiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.12.002","article-title":"Managing abuse in sport: An introduction to the special issue","volume":"23","author":"Kavanagh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674028845"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"37","article-title":"Ecological models of human development","volume":"3","author":"Bronfenbrenner","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. Encycl. Educ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.35.4.320","article-title":"Child maltreatment: An ecological integration","volume":"35","author":"Belsky","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsc.2020-0269","article-title":"Media portrayals of athlete-perpetrated intimate partner violence: An examination of the social ecological model, race, and communication perceptions","volume":"14","author":"Scarduzio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00906069","article-title":"Back to the future, community psychology: Unfolding a theory of social intervention","volume":"16","author":"Seidman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Creswell, J.W., and Poth, C.N. (2016). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Merriam, S.B., and Tisdell, E.J. (2015). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Alexander, K., Stafford, A., and Lewis, R. (2011). The Experiences of Children Participating in Organised Sport in the UK, NSPCC."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2018-100224","article-title":"Child maltreatment in sport: Smashing the wall of silence: A narrative review of physical, sexual, psychological abuses and neglect","volume":"54","author":"Fortier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1080\/0312407X.2016.1142589","article-title":"Secrecy surrounding the physical abuse of child athletes in Australia","volume":"70","author":"McPherson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aust. Soc. Work."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"215","article-title":"The emotional abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches","volume":"13","author":"Gervis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child Abus. Rev. J. Br. Assoc. Study Prev. Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/17461390802086281","article-title":"Defining and categorizing emotional abuse in sport","volume":"8","author":"Stirling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1191\/0967550705ab016oa","article-title":"The grooming process in sport: Narratives of sexual harassment and abuse","volume":"13","author":"Brackenridge","year":"2005","journal-title":"Auto\/Biogr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838017738726","article-title":"Child sexual abuse: Toward a conceptual model and definition","volume":"20","author":"Mathews","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abus."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1097\/JSM.0b013e31820f9248","article-title":"Canadian Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine Position Paper: Abuse, Harassment, and Bullying in Sport","volume":"21","author":"Stirling","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1300\/J070v12n01_05","article-title":"Social reactions to child sexual abuse disclosures: A critical review","volume":"12","author":"Ullman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Child Sex. Abus."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1177\/0907568213505625","article-title":"\u2018There was something that wasn\u2019t right because that was the only place I ever got treated like that\u2019: Children and young people\u2019s experiences of emotional harm in sport","volume":"22","author":"Stafford","year":"2015","journal-title":"Childhood"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2008.9671883","article-title":"Participation in college sports and protection from sexual victimization","volume":"6","author":"Fasting","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738118797322","article-title":"The spectrum of hazing and peer sexual abuse in sports: A current perspective","volume":"10","author":"Jeckell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2014.872747","article-title":"Initiating and sustaining emotional abuse in the coach\u2013athlete relationship: An ecological transactional model of vulnerability","volume":"23","author":"Stirling","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Aggress. Maltreatment Trauma"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200.2011.608413","article-title":"Parents\u2019 reflections on their child\u2019s experiences of emotionally abusive coaching practices","volume":"24","author":"Kerr","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smits, F., Jacobs, F., and Knoppers, A. (2018). \u2018Everything revolves around gymnastics\u2019: Athletes and parents make sense of elite youth sport. Young People and Sport, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781351271882-5"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"151","article-title":"A critical evaluation of training needs for child protection in UK sport","volume":"5","author":"Malkin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Manag. Leis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1002\/car.1135","article-title":"Sexual abuse in sport: A model to prevent and protect athletes","volume":"20","author":"Parent","year":"2011","journal-title":"Child Abus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559507301841","article-title":"Early physical abuse and later violent delinquency: A prospective longitudinal study","volume":"12","author":"Lansford","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Maltreatment"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atashbahar, O., Sari, A.A., Takian, A., Olyaeemanesh, A., Mohamadi, E., and Barakati, S.H. (2022). The impact of social determinants of health on early childhood development: A qualitative context analysis in Iran. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-13571-5"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-013-9567-0","article-title":"Family dysfunction and social \u0131solation as moderators between stress and child physical abuse risk","volume":"29","author":"Tucker","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11133-0","article-title":"The world report on violence and health","volume":"360","author":"Krug","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2020.105120","article-title":"Factors facilitating child abuse in sports in Turkey: The case of elite athletes","volume":"116","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1108\/SRJ-02-2023-0065","article-title":"Abuse of power influencing sexual harassment behaviour in Pakistani sports","volume":"20","author":"Sarwar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soc. Responsib. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fasting, K. (2017). Gender, sexual harassment and abuse in sport. Sport & Gender\u2013(Inter) Nationale Sportsoziologische Geschlechterforschung: Theoretische Ans\u00e4tze, Praktiken und Perspektiven, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-13098-5_12"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1123\/jcsp.2019-0004","article-title":"Re-norming sport for inclusivity: How the sport community has the potential to change a toxic culture of harassment and abuse","volume":"13","author":"Breger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2009.02.007","article-title":"The prevalence of child sexual abuse in community and student samples: A meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Pereda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"UNICEF (2014). Hidden in Plain Sight: A Statistical Analysis of Violence Against Children, United Nations Children\u2019s Fund (UNICEF)."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1177\/104973150001000301","article-title":"What children learn from sexual abuse prevention programs: Difficult concepts and developmental issues","volume":"10","author":"Tutty","year":"2000","journal-title":"Res. Soc. Work. Pract."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-019-09629-z","article-title":"Applying the ecological systems theory to better understand and prevent child sexual abuse","volume":"24","author":"Martinello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex. Cult."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2014.870275","article-title":"A descriptive analysis of public school educators arrested for sex offenses","volume":"23","author":"Ratliff","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Child Sex. Abus."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s40318-022-00217-2","article-title":"Children\u2019s right to play sports in a safe and healthy environment","volume":"22","author":"Aine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Sports Law J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.05.009","article-title":"Evaluating the impacts of working towards the International Safeguards for Children in Sport","volume":"23","author":"Rhind","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/12\/1487\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:48:20Z","timestamp":1760114900000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/11\/12\/1487"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["children11121487"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children11121487","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,6]]}}}