{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T04:35:03Z","timestamp":1790829303034,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Orphans\u2019 and Vulnerable Children\u2019s (OVC) primary caregivers (PCGs) in Ethiopia live with multiple social and emotional problems stemming from extreme poverty, war, environmental disasters, and the HIV pandemic. Family and community supports are strained, leaving OVC\u2019s PCGs dependent on inconsistent humanitarian aid. This aid is typically focused on OVCs and does not address PCG well-being. This study aimed to assess PCG well-being and explore their perceived stress and the traditional family and community coping mechanisms. Method: Participants from the Oromia region of Ethiopia were recruited, and a mixed-methods design was employed. Six cases were included using a criterion sampling technique. An explanatory data analysis technique was used, and data were triangulated from interviews, focus group discussions, archival information, and surveys. A 36-item Well-being Measuring Tool (WMT) Likert scale was employed to measure well-being domains. Result: The results indicated that none of the PCGs reported the desirable and average summative well-being domain mean scores [25 and 23]. Among the ten well-being domains, only \u201cspirituality\u201d and \u201ccommunity cohesion\u201d were above the average score [2.3]. The \u201ceconomy\u201d domain had the lowest score, indicating a critical deficiency [1.3]. A lack of community support could exasperate perceived stress, and well-being deficiencies were linked. Conclusions: Lack of family and community support could exacerbate feeling overlooked, unwelcome, and lonely. A policy that promotes a supportive community environment and safeguards the most vulnerable OVCs and their PCGs should be in place. This study recommends further rigorous research examining the well-being determinants of OVCs\u2019 PCGs in Ethiopia and the role of traditional support systems in rural settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children12010096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T12:27:54Z","timestamp":1737030474000},"page":"96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Stress and Traditional Support: The Role of Orphans\u2019 and Vulnerable Children\u2019s Primary Caregivers in Rural Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4120-4352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aweke","family":"Tadesse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Work, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4641-6699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Helton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okelo, K.O., Kitsao-Wekulo, P., Onyango, S., Wambui, E., Hardie, I., King, J., Murray, A.L., and Auyeung, B. (2024). Sociodemographic Predictors of Parenting Stress among Mothers in Socio-Economically Deprived Settings in Rural and Urban Kenya and Zambia. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-63980-2"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allison, S. (2012). The Role of Families Among Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Confronting HIV\/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa. Family and HIV\/AIDS: Cultural and Contextual Issues in Prevention and Treatment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0439-2_8"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1080\/02589001.2024.2367096","article-title":"Orphans and Vulnerable Children\u2019s Nutrition in Nigeria with Overlap with Biological Relations with the Household Head","volume":"42","author":"Kazeem","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Contemp. Afr. Stud."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1080\/15325024.2018.1482105","article-title":"Loss as Experienced by Ugandan Grandparent-Caregivers of Children Affected by HIV\/AIDS","volume":"23","author":"Matovu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Loss Trauma."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"125","article-title":"Impact of Parental Deprivation and Psychological Well-Being among Adolescent Orphans: A Systematic Review","volume":"6","author":"Duraisamy","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Reatt. Ther. Dev. Divers."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2018.12.024","article-title":"Caring and Thriving: An International Qualitative Study of Caregivers of Orphaned and Vulnerable Children and Strategies to Sustain Positive Mental Health","volume":"98","author":"Molokwu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-016-0660-y","article-title":"Maternal Affective Illness in the Perinatal Period and Child Development: Findings on Developmental Timing, Mechanisms, and Intervention","volume":"18","author":"Monk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.5502\/ijw.v2i3.4","article-title":"The Challenges of Defining Wellbeing","volume":"2","author":"Dodge","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Wellbeing"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2018.12.013","article-title":"The African Child in Kinship Care: A Systematic Review","volume":"98","author":"Ariyo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Thurman, T.R., Kidman, R., Taylor, T., and Chiroro, P. (2013). Isibindi: A Longitudinal Evaluation of Selected Sites in KwaZulu-Natal, Tulane University."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2016.06.018","article-title":"The Impact of Para-Professional Social Workers and Community Health Care Workers in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire: Contributions to the Protection and Social Support of Vulnerable Children in a Resource Poor Country","volume":"67","author":"Muriuki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035444","article-title":"The Pains and Pleasures of Parenting: When, Why, and How Is Parenthood Associated with More or Less Well-Being?","volume":"140","author":"Nelson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1007\/s10943-019-00955-y","article-title":"Religion and Caregiving for Orphans and Vulnerable Children: A Qualitative Study of Caregivers Across Four Religious Traditions and Five Global Contexts","volume":"59","author":"Eagle","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Relig. Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-016-0679-7","article-title":"Parental Depression and Associations with Parenting and Children\u2019s Physical and Mental Health in a Sub-Saharan African Setting","volume":"48","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child. Psychiatry Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.2989\/16085906.2017.1387579","article-title":"Empowering Caregivers of Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Swaziland","volume":"64","author":"Makufa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Afr. J. AIDS Res."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"7","article-title":"Guardianship Planning Among Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Orphaned by HIV\/AIDS in Northern Vietnam","volume":"4","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Grandfamilies"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2015.12.010","article-title":"Poverty Is Not Just an Indicator: The Relationship Between Income, Poverty, and Child Well-Being","volume":"16","author":"Chaudry","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acad. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20503121211059694","DOI":"10.1177\/20503121211059694","article-title":"Factors Associated with Childhood Underweight among Orphaned Preschool Children: A Community-Based Analytical Cross-Sectional Study in Southern Ethiopia","volume":"9","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2021","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.2147\/PHMT.S276698","article-title":"Essential Newborn Care and Associated Factors among Obstetrical Care Providers in Awi Zone Health Facilities, Northwest Ethiopia: An Institutional-Based Cross-Sectional","volume":"11","author":"Ayenew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Health Med. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Kilbourn, P. (1996). Children in Crisis: A New Commitment, Marc Pubns."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abebe, Y. (2023). Task-Shifting and Task-Sharing Initiatives to Improve Community Nutrition Services, Lessons from Ethiopia. Res. Sq.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2480017\/v1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kemei, J., Salami, B., Soboka, M., Gommaa, H.I.M., Okeke-Ihejirika, P., and Lavin, T. (2023). The Forms and Adverse Effects of Insecurities among Internally Displaced Children in Ethiopia. BMC Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-15109-9"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, N., Pincock, K., and Yadete, W. (2021). We Are Not Accepted Here. Adolescents in Humanitarian Crisis, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003167013"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bovienzo, D., Marzi, S., Monteleone, L., Mysiak, J., and Pal, J. (2023, January 24\u201328). Current and Future Evolution of Drought Risk in Ethiopia: A Framework to Inform Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation Policies. Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu23-14314"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"75","article-title":"Socio-Economic and Political Analysis of a Fragile State: A Reflection on Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Management","year":"2023","journal-title":"Management"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/21632324.2020.1809282","article-title":"A Phenomenological Study of the Experience of Tribal Stigma among Documented Male Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad","volume":"10","author":"Peters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Migr. Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1885122","article-title":"Review on Socio-Economic Impacts of \u201cTriple Threats\u201d of COVID-19, Desert Locusts, and Floods in East Africa: Evidence from Ethiopia","volume":"7","author":"Kassegn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cogent Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.5897\/JPHE2014.0648","article-title":"Psychosocial Wellbeing of Orphan and Vulnerable Children at Orphanages in Gondar Town, North West Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Sebsibe","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Public Health Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2170010","DOI":"10.1080\/17482631.2023.2170010","article-title":"Orphans in Syria and Iraq Juggling Balls: Wars, COVID-19, and the NGO\u2019s Financial Crisis","volume":"18","author":"Abulaban","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Stud. Health Well-Being"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s10902-013-9426-y","article-title":"Social Capital and Individual Happiness in Europe","volume":"15","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Happiness Stud."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lehmann, K.H. (2022). The Origins and Persistence of Gender Roles in Ethiopia, Lund University."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1177\/1078390316669230","article-title":"Social Determinants of Depression Among Hispanic Women","volume":"23","author":"Cianelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychiatr. Nurses Assoc."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Galster, G.C. (2013). The Mechanism(s) of Neighbourhood Effects: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications. Neighbourhood Effects Research: New Perspectives, Springer."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1080\/02723638.2018.1474609","article-title":"Neighborhood-Based Social Capital and Life Satisfaction: The Case of Rotterdam, the Netherlands","volume":"39","author":"Hoogerbrugge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban Geogr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-017-1406-9","article-title":"The Role of Socio-Economic Status and Neighborhood Social Capital on Loneliness among Older Adults: Evidence from the Sant Boi Aging Study","volume":"52","author":"Lara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"445","article-title":"Challenges of Orphan Caregiver Families in Jimma Town, Oromia\/Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Dereje","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Chernet, T. (2024, May 03). Overview of Services for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Ethiopia. Available online: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C26&inst=17218728528046824768&q=Chernet%2C+T.+%282001%2C+March%29.+Overview+of+services+for+orphans+and+vulnerable+%09children+in+Ethiopia.+In+the+Report+version+of+the+presentation+at+a+national+%09workshop.+Kigali%2C+Rwanda.&btnG=."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Gerring, J. (2004). Letter from the Section President. Report Version of Presentation at National Workshop, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Creswell, J.W. (1999). Mixed-Method Research: Introduction and Application. Handbook of Educational Policy, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012174698-8\/50045-X"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"283","article-title":"Discovering the Future of the Case Study Method in Evaluation Research","volume":"15","author":"Yin","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Eval."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Senefeld, S., Strasser, S., and Campbell, J. (2009). Orphans and Vulnerable Children Wellbeing Tool: User\u2019s Guide, Catholic Relief Services."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, May 03). Evaluation\u2014Promise and Performance|Office of Justice Programs, Available online: https:\/\/www.ojp.gov\/ncjrs\/virtual-library\/abstracts\/evaluation-promise-and-performance."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"359","article-title":"Designing case studies","volume":"5","author":"Yin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tadesse, A., Helton, J.J., and Li, K. (2024). Perceived Worries and Spirituality: A Mixed Methods Study of the Primary Caregiver Well-Being of Orphan and Vulnerable Children in Ethiopia. Children, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/children11040380"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"55","article-title":"Analysis of Economic Value of Lake Ziway: An Application of Contingent Valuation Method","volume":"40","author":"Desta","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Resour. Dev. Manag."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.107786","article-title":"Local Perceptions of Ecosystem Services and Human-Induced Degradation of Lake Ziway in the Rift Valley Region of Ethiopia","volume":"127","author":"Desta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1071\/AH042710111","article-title":"The Impact of Caring on Caregivers\u2019 Mental Health: A Review of the Literature","volume":"27","author":"Savage","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aust. Health Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Clinton, H. (2006). It Takes a Village, Simon and Schuster."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-37722013000300002","article-title":"Brazilian Mothers\u2019 Description of Their Children: Dimensions of Autonomy and Relatedness","volume":"29","author":"Mendes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psicol. Teor. Pesqui."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/1\/96\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:29:40Z","timestamp":1759919380000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/1\/96"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["children12010096"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children12010096","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]}}}