{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T14:23:31Z","timestamp":1792160611624,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749600000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse Substance Abuse Research Training (SART) program","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities grant to the Urban Health Institute","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"University of California, Tobacco-Related Diseases Research Program","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"the Clinical Research Education and Career Development (CRECD) program at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science through the NIMHD\/NIH Award","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"the John Templeton Foundation","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"Templeton Religion Trust","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"Templeton World Charity Foundation","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"Well-Being for Planet Earth Foundation, Fetzer Institute","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"Well Being Trust","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"Paul L. Foster Family Foundation","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["1R25DA050723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R25DA050723"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["S21 MD000103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S21 MD000103"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["T32IR5355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32IR5355"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["R25 MD007610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25 MD007610"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["61665"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61665"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["1308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1308"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0605"]}]},{"name":"the David and Carol Myers Foundation","award":["4354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4354"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) such as abuse (defined as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse without distinguishing type or severity) have long been linked to mental health challenges in adulthood. However, less is known about how these effects differ by sex\/gender in global samples, particularly using large-scale, multi-country panel data. Objectives: To examine whether the long-term association between childhood abuse and changes in depressive symptoms during adulthood differ between men and women, after adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic factors. Methods: We conducted a secondary analysis of Waves 1 and 2 of the Global Flourishing Study (GFS), a longitudinal panel study covering 22 diverse countries. The sample included adult participants with complete data on childhood abuse (yes\/no); depression at baseline and follow-up; sex\/gender; and relevant covariates (age; education; marital status; immigration status; smoking status; and employment). Depression was measured using a two-item scale. Multi-group structural equation models were used to test the effect of ACE on changes in depression over time where groups were defined based on sex\/gender. Results: Overall, childhood abuse was associated with a statistically significant increase in depression scores between Wave 1 and Wave 2. This association was significant among women but not among men. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the mental health consequences of childhood abuse extend into adulthood and disproportionately affect women. These sex\/gender differences may reflect variations in stress processing; coping; and social roles. Interventions addressing early adversity may need to be tailored to recognize and respond to such sex\/gender-specific vulnerabilities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children12060754","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T05:23:16Z","timestamp":1749619396000},"page":"754","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Sex\/Gender Differences in the Effects of Childhood Abuse on Future Risk of Depression: Longitudinal Evidence from the Global Flourishing Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5054-6250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shervin","family":"Assari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Charles R Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Charles R Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"},{"name":"Department of Family Medicine, Charles R Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"},{"name":"Department of Urban Public Health, Charles R Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Babak","family":"Najand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marginalization Related Diminished Returns Center, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Donovan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Charles R Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.3109\/09540261.2010.492391","article-title":"Gender differences in depression","volume":"22","author":"Parker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.150205","article-title":"Why is depression more prevalent in women?","volume":"40","author":"Albert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2022_375","article-title":"Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety","volume":"62","author":"Pavlidi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"44","article-title":"The Relation Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adult Health: Turning Gold into Lead","volume":"6","author":"Felitti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Perm. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2003.12.013","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood","volume":"82","author":"Chapman","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1080\/10615806.2019.1638699","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and coping strategies: Identifying pathways to resiliency in adulthood","volume":"32","author":"Sheffler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anxiety Stress Coping"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-022-01478-x","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and severity levels of inflammation and depression from childhood to young adulthood: A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"27","author":"Iob","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2007.02.006","article-title":"Hippocampal formation: Shedding light on the influence of sex and stress on the brain","volume":"55","author":"McEwen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15268","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0907352106","article-title":"Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone","volume":"106","author":"Sapienza","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-6748.98407","article-title":"Gender differences in stress response: Role of developmental and biological determinants","volume":"20","author":"Verma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ind. Psychiatry J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2025.116382","article-title":"Stress sensitivity in women with a history of recurrent versus first-episode major depression","volume":"345","author":"Gan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2019.01.006","article-title":"Sex differences in depression: Insights from clinical and preclinical studies","volume":"176","author":"Eid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2023.100611","article-title":"Sex differences in childhood maltreatment, inflammation, and adulthood depression: A network analysis","volume":"29","author":"Graves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun. Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gronewold, J., Duman, E.E., Engel, M., Engels, M., Siegrist, J., Erbel, R., J\u00f6ckel, K.H., and Hermann, D.M. (2022). Association between life events and later depression in the population-based Heinz Nixdorf Recall study-The role of sex and optimism. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0271716"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, X., Guo, W., Wu, H., Fu, X., Li, M., Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Cui, R., Yang, W., and Zhang, Z. (2022). Sex Differences in Depression Caused by Early Life Stress and Related Mechanisms. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.797755"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.07.037","article-title":"Sex differences in the inflammation-depression link: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"121","author":"Jarkas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, R., Kogler, L., and Derntl, B. (2024). Sex differences in cortisol levels in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Neuroendocr., 72.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2023.101118"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e140","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291725001102","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences, inflammation, and depression: Evidence of sex- and stressor specific effects in a nationally representative longitudinal sample of U.S. adolescents","volume":"55","author":"Slavich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvae163.1194","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvae163.1194","article-title":"8256 Early Life Stress and Pubertal Predictors of Youth Substance Use Initiation: Does Sex Moderate the Relationship Between ELS, Puberty, and Substance Use Initiation?","volume":"8","author":"Donovan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.29245\/2578-2959\/2024\/2.1305","article-title":"Sex Differences in the Relationship Between Nucleus Accumbens Volume and Youth Tobacco or Marijuana Use Following Stressful Life Events","volume":"8","author":"Assari","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ment. Health Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3192","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.91111.2008","article-title":"Stress-induced changes in nucleus accumbens glutamate synaptic plasticity","volume":"101","author":"Campioni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1891\/VV-2021-0156","article-title":"Stressful Events During Last Year, Violence and Anxiety and Depression: A Moderated Mediation Model by Sex","volume":"37","author":"Ferreira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2025.112551","article-title":"Early life stress and pubertal predictors of subsequent substance use in a national diverse sample of adolescents: Sex and substance type matter","volume":"268","author":"Donovan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donovan, A., Assari, S., Grella, C., Shaheen, M., Richter, L., and Friedman, T.C. (2024). Neuroendocrine mechanisms in the links between early life stress, affect, and youth substance use: A conceptual model for the study of sex and gender differences. Front. Neuroendocrinol., 73.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2024.101121"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13564","article-title":"Gene regulatory mechanisms underlying sex differences in brain development and psychiatric disease","volume":"1420","author":"Manoli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Cerd\u00e1n, A., Andreu, Z., Hidalgo, M.R., Soler-S\u00e1ez, I., de la Iglesia-Vay\u00e1, M., Mikozami, A., Guerini, F.R., and Garc\u00eda-Garc\u00eda, F. (2024). An integrated approach to identifying sex-specific genes, transcription factors, and pathways relevant to Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Neurobiol. Dis., 199.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2024.106605"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-025-01735-6","article-title":"Targeting mental health and wellbeing in women who have experienced gender-based violence through moderate-vigorous physical activity: A systematic review","volume":"22","author":"Baker","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1177\/00912174241296230","article-title":"Association between Jewish religious observance and mental health among Israeli adults: Findings from the Global Flourishing Study","volume":"60","author":"Levin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychiatry Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lomas, T., Bradshaw, M., Case, B., Cowden, R.G., Crabtree, S., English, C., Fogleman, A., Johnson, K.A., Ritter, Z., and Johnson, B.R. (2025). The development of the Global Flourishing Study questionnaire: Charting the evolution of a new 109-Item inventory of human flourishing. BMC Glob. Public. Health, 3.","DOI":"10.1186\/s44263-025-00139-9"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1177\/23969393211068096","article-title":"The global flourishing study: A new era for the study of well-being","volume":"46","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Bull. Mission Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"VanderWeele, T.J., Johnson, B.R., Bialowolski, P.T., Bonhag, R., Bradshaw, M., Breedlove, T., Case, B., Chen, Y., Chen, Z.J., and Counted, V. (2025). The Global Flourishing Study: Study profile and initial results on flourishing. Nat. Ment. Health, 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-5312412\/v1"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2544","DOI":"10.1007\/s10943-024-02078-5","article-title":"Religious Differences in Physical and Mental Health among Israeli Jews: Findings from the Global Flourishing Study","volume":"63","author":"Levin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Relig. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-024-01167-9","article-title":"Survey sampling design in wave 1 of the Global Flourishing Study","volume":"40","author":"Padgett","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MLR.0000093487.78664.3C","article-title":"The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: Validity of a two-item depression screener","volume":"41","author":"Kroenke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullman, J.B., and Bentler, P.M. (2012). Structural equation modeling. Handbook of Psychology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118133880.hop202023"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hair Jr, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N.P., Ray, S., Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M., and Sarstedt, M. (2021). An introduction to structural equation modeling. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) Using R, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80519-7"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mueller, R.O., and Hancock, G.R. (2018). Structural equation modeling. The reviewer\u2019s Guide to Quantitative Methods in the Social Sciences, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315755649-33"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowen, N.K., and Guo, S. (2011). Structural Equation Modeling, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195367621.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1007\/s10763-012-9339-y","article-title":"Gender differences in student motivation and self-regulation in science learning: A multi-group structural equation modeling analysis","volume":"10","author":"Velayutham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0722.2008.00549.x","article-title":"A structural equation modelling approach to the analysis of change","volume":"116","author":"Tu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oral. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.02.009","article-title":"Childhood abuse, personality traits, and depressive symptoms in adulthood","volume":"65","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.22011","article-title":"Stressful life events and depression symptoms: The effect of childhood emotional abuse on stress reactivity","volume":"70","author":"Shapero","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291714001561","article-title":"Childhood abuse and neglect in relation to the presence and persistence of psychotic and depressive symptomatology","volume":"45","author":"Viechtbauer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-01829-w","article-title":"Insula network connectivity mediates the association between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms in major depressive disorder patients","volume":"12","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8582","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1900801116","article-title":"Childhood trauma history is linked to abnormal brain connectivity in major depression","volume":"116","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2024.104093","article-title":"Occipital connectivity networks mediate the neural effects of childhood maltreatment on depressive symptoms in major depressive disorder","volume":"97","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Huang, J., Wu, Y., Zhou, L., Qiao, C., Xie, J., and Hu, C. (2024). Exploring the neural link between childhood maltreatment and depression: A default mode network rs-fMRI study. Front. Psychiatry, 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1450051"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2013.12.025","article-title":"Child abuse, depression, and methylation in genes involved with stress, neural plasticity, and brain circuitry","volume":"53","author":"Weder","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Z., Luo, Q., Wu, H., Wu, Z., Zheng, Y., Yang, Y., He, J., Ding, Y., Yu, R., and Peng, H. (2021). Amplitude of low-frequency oscillations in major depressive disorder with childhood trauma. Front. Psychiatry, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.596337"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0167-9","article-title":"Sex differences in the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis\u2019 response to stress: An important role for gonadal hormones","volume":"44","author":"Heck","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890.2017.1369523","article-title":"Hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal and hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity","volume":"20","author":"Oyola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01537453","article-title":"Gender role socialization and adolescents\u2019 reports of depression: Why some girls and not others?","volume":"25","author":"Obeidallah","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014433","article-title":"The role of sex and gender socialization in stress reactivity","volume":"45","author":"Dedovic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christiansen, D.M., McCarthy, M.M., and Seeman, M.V. (2022). Where sex meets gender: How sex and gender come together to cause sex differences in mental illness. Front. Psychiatry, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.856436"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinc\u00f3n-Cort\u00e9s, M., Herman, J.P., Lupien, S., Maguire, J., and Shansky, R.M. (2019). Stress: Influence of sex, reproductive status and gender. Neurobiol. Stress., 10.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2019.100155"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/07448481.2015.1117462","article-title":"The effects of sex and gender role identity on perceived stress and coping among traditional and nontraditional students","volume":"64","author":"Jones","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2009.94","article-title":"Sex, trauma, stress hormones and depression","volume":"15","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-024-01490-8","article-title":"Sex differences in stress susceptibility as a key mechanism underlying depression risk","volume":"26","author":"Mengelkoch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2018.05.016","article-title":"Sex hormones affect acute and chronic stress responses in sexually dimorphic patterns: Consequences for depression models","volume":"95","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2016.18.4\/jmarrocco","article-title":"Sex in the brain: Hormones and sex differences","volume":"18","author":"Marrocco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23809","article-title":"Understanding the broad influence of sex hormones and sex differences in the brain","volume":"95","author":"McEwen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3415-z","article-title":"Impacts of stress and sex hormones on dopamine neurotransmission in the adolescent brain","volume":"231","author":"Sinclair","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/bjc.12147","article-title":"Gender differences in preferences for psychological treatment, coping strategies, and triggers to help-seeking","volume":"57","author":"Liddon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.21661","article-title":"Stress, coping, and mental health-seeking behaviors: Gender differences in OEF\/OIF health care providers","volume":"25","author":"Gibbons","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaging.2007.05.002","article-title":"\u201cNo sissy stuff\u201d: Towards a theory of masculinity and emotional expression in older widowed men","volume":"21","author":"Bennett","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Aging Stud."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1037\/1524-9220.6.4.275","article-title":"Masculinity, Shame, and Fear of Emotions as Predictors of Men\u2019s Expressions of Anger and Hostility","volume":"6","author":"Jakupcak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Men Masculinity"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1177\/0038026116686500","article-title":"Are men getting more emotional? Critical sociological perspectives on men, masculinities and emotions","volume":"65","author":"Hearn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8287.1997.tb00527.x","article-title":"Social context, depression and the transition to motherhood","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"1997","journal-title":"Br. J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(91)90052-E","article-title":"Women and depression: A Durkheimian perspective","volume":"32","author":"Schwartz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23976","article-title":"Do sex differences in rumination explain sex differences in depression?","volume":"95","author":"Shors","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579406060408","article-title":"Self-regulation, rumination, and vulnerability to depression in adolescent girls","volume":"18","author":"Papadakis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/6\/754\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:49:53Z","timestamp":1760032193000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/6\/754"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["children12060754"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children12060754","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]}}}