{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T23:27:52Z","timestamp":1776900472567,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]],"date-time":"2025-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759622400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Human Science and Design at Baylor University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many policy recommendations state that children aged 2 to 5 should not spend more than an hour per day in front of a screen; however, these recommendations are challenged as technology use becomes more mobile and accessible to young children. Background\/Objectives: The goal of this study is to examine the relationship between children\u2019s and parents\u2019 mobile media use (i.e., smartphones and tablets) and children\u2019s developmental milestones, including their fine motor, gross motor, and personal social skills. Methods: Data for this study comes from two child development centers in the southwestern United States, one serving predominantly middle class families and another serving low-income families (N = 63). Parents completed online surveys regarding their own and their children\u2019s social media use by uploading screenshots of their own and their children\u2019s mobile media device (if applicable) over the last 24 h. Parents identified how many minutes they spent using social media, how many minutes their child spent using social media, and how many minutes their child spent watching television. To capture children\u2019s developmental milestones, parents completed the ages and stages questionnaire (ASQ3), which measures children\u2019s fine motor skills, gross motor skills, and social skills. Results: Correlation and regression analyses revealed that parent mobile media use was positively associated with children\u2019s gross motor and personal social skills (B = 0.38 and 0.32, respectively, p &lt; 0.05; R2 = 0.09\u20130.19) and children\u2019s television viewing was negatively associated with children\u2019s gross motor skills (B = \u22120.30, p &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: Children\u2019s mobile media may have different consequences for children\u2019s developmental milestones compared to television, and parents\u2019 mobile media use may be more associated with children\u2019s developmental milestones than children\u2019s own use of these devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children12101337","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T08:10:51Z","timestamp":1759738251000},"page":"1337","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Swipes vs. Strides: How Mobile Media Use Shapes Children\u2019s Gross and Fine Motor Skills"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8892-2808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Langlais","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences and Design, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valeria","family":"Veras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City Church, Tallahassee, FL 32312, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Faith","family":"Davidson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences and Design, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ashleigh","family":"Rhyner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences and Design, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Squires, J., and Bricker, D. (2009). Ages & Stages Questionnaires\u00ae, (ASQ-3\u2122), APA PsycTests. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3351","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_703_23","article-title":"Mobile phone use by young children and parent\u2019s views on children\u2019s mobile phone usage","volume":"12","author":"Shah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Common Sense Media (2025). Media Use by Kids Zero to 8, Common Sense Media. Available online: https:\/\/www.commonsensemedia.org\/sites\/default\/files\/research\/report\/2025-common-sense-census-web-2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13429","article-title":"Learning from video: A meta-analysis of the video deficit in children ages 0 to 6 years","volume":"92","author":"Strouse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/pxac125","article-title":"Screen time and preschool children: Promoting health and development in a digital world","volume":"28","author":"Ponti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-2251","article-title":"Mobile and interactive media use by young children: The good, the bad, and the unknown","volume":"135","author":"Radesky","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738120986803","article-title":"Effects of 8 weeks of balance training, virtual reality training, and combined exercise on lower limb muscle strength, balance, and functional mobility among older men: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"13","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1086\/707985","article-title":"Kids these days: Are face-to-face social skills among American children declining?","volume":"125","author":"Downey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2023.101319","article-title":"Young children and screen-based media: The impact on cognitive and socioemotional development and the importance of parental mediation","volume":"66","author":"Vermeij","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"e40608","article-title":"Effects of excessive screen time on child development: An updated review and strategies for management","volume":"15","author":"Muppalla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"s33","article-title":"Interventions to suppress puberty in adolescents experiencing gender dysphoria or incongruence: A systematic review","volume":"109","author":"Taylor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1037\/ppm0000163","article-title":"Development and validation of the Problematic Media Use Measure: A parent report measure of screen media \u201caddiction\u201d in children","volume":"8","author":"Domoff","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Pop. Media Cult."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., and Souberman, E. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Mcleod, S. (2025). Vygotsky\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development, Simply Psychology."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). Physical Activity, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/physical-activity."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2018.06.017","article-title":"Exercise in cirrhosis: Translating evidence and experience to practice","volume":"69","author":"Tandon","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"48","article-title":"Why motor skills matter","volume":"63","author":"Pica","year":"2008","journal-title":"YC Young Child."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2022.03.010","article-title":"Screen media are associated with fine motor skill development in preschool children","volume":"60","author":"Martzog","year":"2022","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2021.101279","article-title":"Children\u2019s sensorimotor development in relation to screen-media usage: A two-year longitudinal study","volume":"74","author":"Suggate","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2013.105","article-title":"Early childhood television viewing and kindergarten entry readiness","volume":"74","author":"Pagani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruininks, R., and Bruininks, B. (2005). Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2), PEARSON. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t14991-000"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Operto, F.F., Viggiano, A., Perfetto, A., Citro, G., Olivieri, M., Simone, V., Bonuccelli, A., Orsini, A., Aiello, S., and Coppola, G. (2023). Digital devices use and fine motor skills in children between 3\u20136 years. Children, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/children10060960"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.03.011","article-title":"Childhood socioeconomic status and the pace of structural neurodevelopment: Accelerated, delayed, or simply different?","volume":"27","author":"Rakesh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Wedge, M. (2025, January 15). Screen Time and Autism. Psychology Today, Available online: https:\/\/www.psychologytoday.com\/us\/blog\/suffer-the-children\/202112\/screen-time-and-autism."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Auxier, B., Anderson, M., Perrin, A., and Turner, E. (2020). Parenting Children in the Age of Screens, Pew Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2020\/07\/28\/parenting-children-in-the-age-of-screens\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Larkina, A. (2025, January 12). Kids on the Web in 2023. Kapersky Daily, Available online: https:\/\/www.kaspersky.com\/blog\/kids-on-the-web-2023\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terras, M., and Ramsay, J. (2016). Family digital literacy practices and children\u2019s mobile phone use. Front. Physiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01957"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2020.101497","article-title":"Parental decision-making: Infant engagement with smartphones","volume":"61","author":"Golden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infant Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2014.12.001","article-title":"Young children\u2019s screen time: The complex role of parent and child factors","volume":"36","author":"Lauricella","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12822","article-title":"Technoference: Parent distraction with technology and associations with child behavior problems","volume":"89","author":"McDaniel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13715","article-title":"The effects of maternal smartphone use on mother\u2013child interaction","volume":"93","author":"Lederer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2801","DOI":"10.1177\/0192513X19864983","article-title":"Screen-assisted parenting: The relationship between toddlers\u2019 screen time and parents\u2019 use of media as a parenting tool","volume":"40","author":"Elias","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Fam. Issues"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"15","article-title":"Guided interaction: Exploring how adults can support children\u2019s learning with technology in preschool settings","volume":"12","author":"Plowman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hong Kong J. Early Child."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1177\/0743558414538316","article-title":"\u201cMedia time = family time\u201d: Positive media use in families with adolescents","volume":"29","author":"Coyne","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2020.152180","article-title":"Preventing problematic internet use during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consensus guidance","volume":"100","author":"Potenza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000825","article-title":"Applying harm reduction principles to address screen time in young children amidst the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"41","author":"Vanderloo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Council on Communications and Media, Hill, D., Ameenuddin, N., Reid Chassiakos, Y., Cross, C., Hutchinson, J., Levine, A., Boyd, R., Mendelson, R., and Moreno, M. (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 138, e20162591.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2591"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitzpatrick, P.J. (2023). Improving health literacy using the power of digital communications to achieve better health outcomes for patients and practitioners. Front. Digit. Health, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2023.1264780"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13927","article-title":"Screen media exposure and young children\u2019s vocabulary learning and development: A meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Jing","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1080\/15295192.2024.2437156","article-title":"Maternal media use and infant media exposure are associated with developmental outcomes at 4 and 8 months","volume":"25","author":"Paoletti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parent. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S57","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-1758C","article-title":"Digital screen media and cognitive development","volume":"140","author":"Anderson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.06.003","article-title":"Impact of parents\u2019 mobile device use on parent\u2013child interaction: A literature review","volume":"75","author":"Kildare","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.4103\/2249-4863.184636","article-title":"Validity and reliability of the developmental assessment screening scale","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2014.12.005","article-title":"Effects of television exposure on developmental skills among young children","volume":"38","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infant Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100615569721","article-title":"Putting education in \u201ceducational\u201d apps: Lessons from the science of learning","volume":"16","author":"Zosh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci. Public Interest"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2020.0327","article-title":"Associations between screen use and child language skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"174","author":"Madigan","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2022.101470","article-title":"Time spent playing predicts early reading and math skills through associations with self-regulation","volume":"83","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, F., Deng, Q., Yu, X., Xie, Q., and Geng, L. (2024). Parenting style and child mental health at preschool age: Evidence from rural China. BMC Psychiatry, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-024-05707-1"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twork, K., Ludwig, J., Kiess, W., and Poulain, T. (Pediatr. Res., 2024). Parent\u2013child interaction frequency: Associations with age, sibling presence, and child health, Pediatr. Res., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-024-03727-x"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-023-09696-0","article-title":"The effect of a teacher\u2019s mindset on the cascading zones of proximal development: A systematic review","volume":"29","author":"Lambright","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technol. Knowl. Learn."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13730","article-title":"Can guidance during play enhance children\u2019s learning and development in educational contexts? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Skene","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, T.J., and Edwards, T.S. (2016). Toddlers\u2019 fine motor milestone achievement is associated with early touchscreen scrolling. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01108"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-010-9127-6","article-title":"Scaffolding in teacher\u2013student interaction: A decade of research","volume":"22","author":"Volman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5868-8-98","article-title":"Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in school-aged children and youth","volume":"8","author":"Tremblay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e023191","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-023191","article-title":"Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: A systematic review of reviews","volume":"9","author":"Stiglic","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Zhang, Y., and Li, X. (2024). The relationship between screen time and gross motor movement: A cross-sectional study of preschool-aged left-behind children in China. Front. Public Health, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0296862"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2021.101326","article-title":"Can interactive apps promote parent-child conversations?","volume":"76","author":"Rowe","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305000922000265","article-title":"The association between screen media quantity, content, and context and language development in Saudi children aged 1 to 3 years","volume":"50","author":"Alroqi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Child Lang."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2018.01.006","article-title":"The effects of screen media content on young children\u2019s executive functioning","volume":"170","author":"Huber","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/10\/1337\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T08:49:33Z","timestamp":1759740573000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/12\/10\/1337"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["children12101337"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children12101337","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]}}}