{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T13:54:08Z","timestamp":1783605248784,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: Primary vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is a common pediatric urological disorder that can lead to significant renal morbidity if undetected or improperly managed. Ultrasound (US) plays a pivotal role in its assessment, providing a radiation-free tool to prenatal assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and long-term follow-up. This study aims to systematically review the literature on the use of US in pediatric primary VUR, emphasizing its applications in prenatal and postnatal diagnosis, intraoperative guidance, and follow-up monitoring. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was performed on PubMed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. The research strategy used the following keywords: Ultrasound Vesicoureteral reflux, VUR Ultrasound, and VUR Sonography. A total of 2222 records were initially identified. After screening titles and abstracts for relevance, 2165 studies were excluded because they did not focus on ultrasound procedures, did not specify age limits, were redundant, involved non-homogeneous populations, or were unavailable in full text. Results: Prenatal US enables early identification of urinary tract anomalies suggestive of VUR, facilitating targeted postnatal evaluation. Postnatally, contrast-enhanced voiding ultrasound (CEVUS) offers a non-ionizing method for VUR confirmation or exclusion. Intraoperatively, US improves the accuracy and efficacy of bulking agent placement, potentially enhancing surgical outcomes. In follow-up, US remains essential for both conservatively managed and surgically treated patients, enabling timely detection of complications or recurrence. Conclusions: Ultrasound represents a useful tool in the management of pediatric primary VUR, applicable across all clinical stages, avoiding radiation exposure, and improving surgical effectiveness and follow-up management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children12101363","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:31Z","timestamp":1760028871000},"page":"1363","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Application of Ultrasound in Primary Vesicoureteral Reflux: From Diagnosis to Follow Up"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3187-1901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Pensabene","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benedetto","family":"Spataro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Baldanza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4520-7766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Grasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregorio","family":"Serra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Veronica","family":"Notarbartolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9576-1635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Giuffr\u00e8","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Corsello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9610-1708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Zambaiti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC Pediatric Surgery, Ospedale Infantile \u201cRegina Margherita\u201d, 10126 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2170-8035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Rita","family":"Di Pace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Sergio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Surgery Unit, Department for Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care and Medical Specialties \u201cD\u2019Alessandro\u201d PROMISE, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2015.991717","article-title":"Evaluation and management of recurrent urinary tract infections in children: State of the art [Review of Evaluation and management of recurrent urinary tract infections in children: 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