{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T19:20:25Z","timestamp":1790018425613,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771891200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["101128946-PODiaCar-EU4H-2022-PJ-3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101128946-PODiaCar-EU4H-2022-PJ-3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["CN_00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN_00000033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Fetal growth restriction (FGR), historically termed intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), is a multifactorial condition in which the fetus fails to reach its genetically determined growth potential, most often due to placental insufficiency. Beyond its link with increased perinatal morbidity and mortality, FGR has been associated with long-term cardiovascular risk through early-life programming. The developing fetal heart is vulnerable to chronic hypoxia and nutrient deprivation, potentially inducing structural and functional alterations with lifelong consequences. This narrative review summarizes and critically appraises experimental and clinical evidence on the impact of FGR on myocardial development and cardiovascular health from fetal life to adulthood. Methods: We conducted a narrative review using a structured literature search of studies published in the last 15 years in PubMed and Scopus, focusing on experimental, imaging, and epidemiological research evaluating cardiac structure, function, and long-term cardiovascular outcomes in FGR. Evidence from fetal and neonatal echocardiography, including Doppler and speckle-tracking techniques, as well as molecular and histological studies, was examined. No statistical meta-analysis was performed. Results: FGR has been associated with reduced cardiomyocyte number, altered myocardial architecture, increased interstitial fibrosis, and persistent ventricular remodeling. Functional studies suggest early impairments in systolic and diastolic performance, with alterations in cardiac energy metabolism and epigenetic regulation. Advanced imaging may enable detection of subclinical cardiac dysfunction in utero and early postnatally. Epidemiological data suggest an increased risk of hypertension, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and metabolic disorders in adulthood among individuals born growth-restricted. Conclusions: FGR represents an early cardiovascular risk condition. Improved understanding of fetal cardiac programming may help refine risk stratification, surveillance, and preventive strategies to reduce long-term cardiovascular morbidity in individuals born growth-restricted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children13030312","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T10:14:44Z","timestamp":1771928084000},"page":"312","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Impact of Fetal Growth Restriction on Myocardial Development from Fetal Life to Early Childhood: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9099-1845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Savina","family":"Mannarino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2137-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Calcaterra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Department, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1088-4261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vittoria","family":"Garella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filippo","family":"Puricelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatrice","family":"Baj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonia","family":"Quatrale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassandra","family":"Gazzola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Department, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Nosvelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Raso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Cardiology Unit, \u201cVittore Buzzi\u201d Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2795-9874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianvincenzo","family":"Zuccotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science, University of Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1097\/00003081-200606000-00006","article-title":"Fetal Growth Restriction: The Etiology","volume":"49","author":"Maulik","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. 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