{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:09:19Z","timestamp":1785431359491,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011301","name":"Children\u2019s Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FP20721"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FP20721"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011301","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["FP20721"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FP20721"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0169kb131","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Palmen Critical Care Fund","award":["FP23977"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FP23977"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDSs), also known as e-cigarettes or vapes, have shown popularity among the adolescent population. Compared to adults, less is known regarding the impacts of ENDS and nicotine on the adolescent brain. Adolescent research related to nicotine and other illicit substances can be difficult due to the requirement of parent\/guardian consent, adolescent hesitancy for disclosure of product use, and the continually evolving vaping and nicotine products on the market. Despite these challenges, further research is needed to explore the impact of ENDS on the developing adolescent brain. The objective of the study was to evaluate reward sensitivity and cognitive flexibility in the adolescent population using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) through a probabilistic reversal learning task. Methods: This pilot study recruited participants aged 13\u201319 years old to complete fMRI testing. We specifically adapted a probabilistic reversal learning task that was previously used to measure reward sensitivity and cognitive flexibility in adults (including nicotine users). We were unable to recruit enough ENDS users to complete the planned analysis; therefore, we evaluated non-users as proof of concept for the use of the probabilistic reversal learning task in adolescents to support future research. Participants completed four blocks of a probabilistic reversal learning task, each lasting 6 min. During each block of the task, blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI images were collected. The reward sensitivity and cognitive flexibility contrasts of parameter estimates were entered into a group analysis model. Due to the small sample size and exploratory nature of the study, we were interested in computing population-level estimates of brain activation that could be attributed to reward sensitivity (win-stay minus lose-stay trials) and cognitive flexibility (lose-shift trials minus lose-stay trials). Results: A total of twelve participants completed fMRI testing\u2014ten non-users, one intermittent user, one regular user. Four of these participants (three non-users and one intermittent user) were excluded from the fMRI analysis due to excessive head movement and\/or poor task performance. With the seven remaining non-users, we found no evidence of significant BOLD activation when strictly controlling the Type I error rate. Using a more liberal statistical threshold that did not control the Type I error rate, both contrasts resulted in suprathreshold clusters in occipital and posterior parietal regions, and the reward sensitivity contrast also resulted in suprathreshold clusters in the prefrontal cortex (bilateral middle occipital gyrus). Discussion\/Conclusions: We did not find statistically significant BOLD activation, which is likely due to the small sample size. Suprathreshold clusters using the liberal statistical threshold may be feasible for use as regions of interest in future studies using this task. Notably, the prefrontal regions where the reward sensitivity contrast exceeded the liberal statistical threshold in our study were similar to those observed in previous studies of reward sensitivity in adults (including nicotine users) and adolescents. This pilot study explores the use of an fMRI reward-learning paradigm in the adolescent population, which can serve as a catalyst for future research related to nicotine use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children13050661","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T16:46:18Z","timestamp":1779381978000},"page":"661","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An Exploratory Study of an fMRI Reward-Learning Paradigm in Developing Adolescents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2954-4808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah","family":"Yale","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hospital Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4286-5451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Engelmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center, Rogers Behavioral Health, Oconomowoc, WI 53066, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Loman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Child Neuropsychology, Department of Neurology and Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"DaJhnae Gambrell","family":"Sanders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohit","family":"Maheshwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1744-9739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theresa","family":"Mikhailov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Critical Care, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20182741","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-2741","article-title":"A Public Health Crisis: Electronic Cigarettes, Vape, and JUUL","volume":"143","author":"Walley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.18387","article-title":"e-Cigarette Use Among Youth in the United States, 2019","volume":"322","author":"Cullen","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7341a2","article-title":"Tobacco Product Use Among Middle and High School Students\u2014National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2024","volume":"73","author":"Jamal","year":"2024","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. 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