{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T00:47:50Z","timestamp":1790470070959,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,8]],"date-time":"2019-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1565222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Music and rhythm-based training programs to improve reading are a novel approach to treatment of developmental dyslexia and have attracted the attention of trainers and researchers. Experimental studies demonstrating poor basic auditory processing abilities in individuals with dyslexia suggest they should be effective. On this basis, the efficacy of a novel rhythm-based intervention, Rhythmic Reading Training (RRT), was recently investigated and found to improve reading skills in Italian children with dyslexia, but its mode of action remains somewhat unclear. In this study, 19 children and preadolescents with dyslexia received 20 sessions of RRT over 10 weeks. Gains in a set of reading-related cognitive abilities\u2014verbal working memory, auditory, and visual attention, and rhythm processing\u2014were measured, along with reading outcomes. Analysis of the specific contribution of cognitive subprocesses to the primary effect of RRT highlighted that reading speed improvement during the intervention was related to rhythm and auditory discrimination abilities as well as verbal working memory. The relationships among specific reading parameters and the neuropsychological profile of participants are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children6080091","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,8]],"date-time":"2019-08-08T11:05:32Z","timestamp":1565262332000},"page":"91","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Cognitive Processes Underlying Reading Improvement during a Rhythm-Based Intervention. A Small-Scale Investigation of Italian Children with Dyslexia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3545-8540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Cancer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Stievano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriella","family":"Pace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessia","family":"Colombo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7212-8076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Antonietti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1619","article-title":"Training RAN or reading? A telerehabilitation study on developmental dyslexia","volume":"25","author":"Pecini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5863","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-05826-8","article-title":"Action video games improve reading abilities and visual-to-auditory attentional shifting in English-speaking children with dyslexia","volume":"7","author":"Franceschini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.10.001","article-title":"A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia","volume":"15","author":"Goswami","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2006.06.003","article-title":"Dynamic auditory processing, musical experience and language development","volume":"29","author":"Tallal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"McAnally, K.I., and Stein, J.F. (1996). Auditory Temporal Coding in Dyslexia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, Royal Society."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2010.07.010","article-title":"Music, rhythm, rise time perception and developmental dyslexia: Perception of musical meter predicts reading and phonology","volume":"47","author":"Huss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2012.05.005","article-title":"Perception of patterns of musical beat distribution in phonological developmental dyslexia: Significant longitudinal relations with word reading and reading comprehension","volume":"49","author":"Goswami","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00360","article-title":"Neural entrainment and sensorimotor synchronization to the beat in children with Developmental Dyslexia: An EEG study","volume":"11","author":"Colling","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702616670119","article-title":"Amodal atypical neural oscillatory activity in Dyslexia: A cross-linguistic perspective","volume":"5","author":"Lallier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/mbe.12016","article-title":"A rhythmic musical intervention for poor readers: A comparison of efficacy with a letter-based intervention","volume":"7","author":"Bhide","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mind Brain Educ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cogo-Moreira, H., Andriolo, R.B., Yazigi, L., Ploubidis, G.B., de Avila, C.R.B., and Mari, J.J. (2012). Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD009133.pub2"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flaugnacco, E., Lopez, L., Terribili, C., Montico, M., Zoia, S., and Sch\u00f6n, D. (2015). Music training increases phonological awareness and reading skills in Developmental Dyslexia: A randomized control trial. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138715"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1284.060","article-title":"Dyslexia and music. From timing deficits to musical intervention","volume":"999","author":"Overy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serino, S., Matic, A., Giakoumis, D., Lopez, G., and Cipresso, P. (2016). Rhythmic Reading Training (RRT): A computer-assisted intervention program for dyslexia. Pervasive Computing Paradigms for Mental Health, Springer International Publishing. Communications in Computer and Information Science.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32270-4"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cancer, A., and Antonietti, A. (2017). Remedial interventions for developmental dyslexia: How neuropsychological evidence can inspire and support a rehabilitation training. Neuropsychol. Trends, 73\u201395.","DOI":"10.7358\/neur-2017-022-canc"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01510","article-title":"Improving reading skills in students with dyslexia: The efficacy of a sublexical training with rhythmic background","volume":"6","author":"Bonacina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Cancer, A., Bonacina, S., Antonietti, A., Salandi, A., Molteni, M., and Lorusso, M.L. The effectiveness of interventions for developmental dyslexia: Rhythmic reading training compared with hemisphere-specific stimulation and action video games. Read. Writ., in press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219409331958","article-title":"Working memory, short-term memory, and reading disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature","volume":"42","author":"Swanson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702616672038","article-title":"Strengths and weaknesses in the intellectual profile of different subtypes of specific learning disorder: A study on 1049 diagnosed children","volume":"5","author":"Toffalini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2012.11.015","article-title":"Working memory deficits in children with reading difficulties: Memory span and dual task coordination","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.03.013","article-title":"A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition","volume":"22","author":"Franceschini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.01.044","article-title":"Action video games make dyslexic children read better","volume":"23","author":"Franceschini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00392","article-title":"Rhythm perception and production predict reading abilities in developmental dyslexia","volume":"8","author":"Flaugnacco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2008.12.004","article-title":"Naming problems do not reflect a second independent core deficit in dyslexia: Double deficits explored","volume":"103","author":"Vaessen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"PARCC (2019, March 31). Documento d\u2019intesa: Raccomandazioni Cliniche sui DSA. Available online: http:\/\/www.lineeguidadsa.it."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Antonietti, A., Colombo, A., Germagnoli, S., Pace, G., Pradella, C., and Stievano, G. (2017). A Suon di Lettere. Attivit\u00e0 Sonoro-Musicali per il Potenziamento Delle Abilit\u00e0 Linguistiche. [To the Sound of Letters. Sound-Musical Activities for Linguistic Abilities Training], Rugginenti."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219411436213","article-title":"Basic auditory processing deficits in dyslexia: Systematic review of the behavioral and event-related potential\/field evidence","volume":"46","author":"Salminen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Cornoldi, C., and Colpo, G. (1995). Nuove Prove di Lettura MT per la Scuola Media Inferiore: Manuale [New MT Reading Test for Junior High School: Manual], Giunti O.S."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sartori, G., and Job, R. (2007). DDE-2: Batteria per la Valutazione della Dislessia e della Disortografia Evolutiva-2 [Assessment Battery for Developmental Reading and Spelling Disorders], Giunti O.S."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"73","article-title":"Il test delle campanelle modificato: Una proposta per lo studio dell\u2019attenzione in et\u00e0 evolutiva [Modified Bells Test: A proposal for the study of attention in developmental age]","volume":"64","author":"Biancardi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psichiatr. dell\u2019Infanzia dell\u2019Adolescenza"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Bisiacchi, P., Cedron, M., Gugliotta, M., Tressoldi, P.E., and Vio, C. (2005). BVN. Batteria di Valutazione Neuropsicologica per L\u2019et\u00e0 Evolutiva. [Neuropsychological Assessment Battery for Developmental Age], Edizioni Erickson."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"De Beni, R., Zamperlin, C., Friso, G., Molin, A., Poli, S., and Vocetti, C. (2006). Q1 VATA. Batteria per la Valutazione Delle Abilit\u00e0 Trasversali All\u2019apprendimento [Battery for the Assessment of General Learning-Related Abilities], Giunti O.S., Organizzazioni Speciali."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3406\/enfan.1951.1202","article-title":"Le probl\u00e8me du rythme dans le d\u00e9veloppement de l\u2019enfant et dans les dyslexies d\u2019\u00e9volution [Rhythm problems in child development and in developmental dyslexia]","volume":"4","author":"Stambak","year":"1951","journal-title":"Enfance"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-017-9782-9","article-title":"Rhythm production at school entry as a predictor of poor reading and spelling at the end of first grade","volume":"31","author":"Thomson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphysparis.2008.03.007","article-title":"Rhythmic processing in children with developmental dyslexia: Auditory and motor rhythms link to reading and spelling","volume":"102","author":"Thomson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Paris"}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/6\/8\/91\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:09:41Z","timestamp":1760188181000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/6\/8\/91"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,8]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["children6080091"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children6080091","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,8]]}}}