{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T00:22:09Z","timestamp":1781914929323,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,16]],"date-time":"2021-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634342400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan","award":["CMRPD1J0091, BMRPA70, BMRP424,"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMRPD1J0091, BMRPA70, BMRP424,"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001868","name":"National Science Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSC-92-2413-H-182-002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSC-92-2413-H-182-002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001868","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This research surveyed the characteristics of the developmental traits of impulse control behavior in children through parent-report questionnaires. After matching for gender and attention behavior, as well as controlling for variables (motor and perception) which might confound impulse control, 710 participants (355 girls and 355 boys; grade, 1\u20135; age, 7\u201312 years) were recruited from a database of 1763 children. Results demonstrated that there was a significant difference between grade 1 and grade 5 in impulse control. Conversely, no significant differences were found when comparing other grades. The present findings indicate that a striking development of impulse control occurs from grade 4 to 5. Moreover, the plateau of impulse control development from grade 1 to 4 implies that a long transition period is needed to prepare children to develop future impulse control. In conclusion, the age-dependent maturation associated with stage-wise development is a critical characteristic of impulse control development in school age children. Further discussions are made regarding this characteristic, such as from the perspective of frontal lobe development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children8100922","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,17]],"date-time":"2021-10-17T23:13:32Z","timestamp":1634512412000},"page":"922","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Developmental Traits of Impulse Control Behavior in School Children under Controlled Attention, Motor Function, and Perception"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5165-3840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsin-Yung","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy & Graduate Institute of Clinical Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Neurology and Dementia Center, Taoyuan Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan City 33378, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ling-Fu","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy & Graduate Institute of Clinical Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 33302, Taiwan"},{"name":"Division of Occupational Therapy, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chiayi Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Puzi City 613016, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yawen","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1573, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chen-Chi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Center, Taipei Fushing Private School, Taipei City 106343, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li-Yu","family":"Hung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City 106308, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Teacher Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City 106308, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shih-Che","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Occupational Therapy, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chiayi Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Puzi City 613016, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huang-Ju","family":"Chi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Dementia Center, Taoyuan Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan City 33378, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8260.1977.tb01003.x","article-title":"The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description","volume":"16","author":"Eysenck","year":"1977","journal-title":"Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010814-015221","article-title":"School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach","volume":"66","author":"Blair","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2008.10.004","article-title":"The effects of focused attention on inhibition and state regulation in children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"30","author":"Ketch","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2693","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010076108","article-title":"A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety","volume":"108","author":"Moffitt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.06.036","article-title":"The relationship between impulse-control disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A current understanding and future research directions","volume":"170","author":"Potenza","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.72.3.467","article-title":"Preventing disruptive behavior in elementary schoolchildren: Impact of a universal classroom-based intervention","volume":"72","author":"Crijnen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Consult Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579408000436","article-title":"Biological processes in prevention and intervention: The promotion of self-regulation as a means of preventing school failure","volume":"20","author":"Blair","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000159","article-title":"The development of self-regulation across early childhood","volume":"52","author":"Montroy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00919070","article-title":"Impulsivity: A multidimensional concept with developmental aspects","volume":"8","author":"Paulsen","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.35.1.205","article-title":"Development of Inhibitory Control Across the Life Span","volume":"35","author":"Williams","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20225","article-title":"A developmental fMRI study of self-regulatory control","volume":"27","author":"Marsh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.7.4.391","article-title":"The anterior cingulate gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation","volume":"7","author":"Posner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.1046","article-title":"A developmental fMRI study of the Stroop color-word task","volume":"16","author":"Adleman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(00)00890-8","article-title":"Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: Event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism","volume":"48","author":"Pliszka","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsn035","article-title":"Right ventromedial prefrontal cortex: A neuroanatomical correlate of impulse control in boys","volume":"4","author":"Boes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2005.03.012","article-title":"Changes in cerebral functional organization during cognitive development","volume":"15","author":"Casey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(01)00583-9","article-title":"Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: Evidence from fMRI","volume":"33","author":"Bunge","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.10103","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in young children: Relations with self-regulation and adaptation to preschool in children attending head start","volume":"42","author":"Blair","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"32","article-title":"Recognizing and supporting the development of self-regulation in young children","volume":"55","author":"Bronson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Young Child."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00336","article-title":"The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life","volume":"72","author":"Kochanska","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child. Dev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009567419190","article-title":"Findings on disruptive behavior disorders from the first decade of the developmental trends study","volume":"3","author":"Loeber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-071714-034054","article-title":"An integrative model of the maturation of cognitive control","volume":"38","author":"Luna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2602_3","article-title":"Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study","volume":"26","author":"Brocki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1080\/87565649109540499","article-title":"Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning","volume":"7","author":"Levin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.189","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition and developmental risk: A dual-processing perspective","volume":"40","author":"Henderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2006.01.001","article-title":"Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: Translation between clinical and preclinical studies","volume":"26","author":"Winstanley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-0511(99)00040-X","article-title":"Motor control and state regulation in children with ADHD: A cardiac response study","volume":"51","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2003.tb00952.x","article-title":"Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD","volume":"45","author":"Pitcher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.82.1.51","article-title":"Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use","volume":"82","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.88.10.904","article-title":"Deficits in attention, motor control, and perception: A brief review","volume":"88","author":"Gillberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00233","article-title":"Prediction of elementary school children\u2019s externalizing problem behaviors from attentional and behavioral regulation and negative emotionality","volume":"71","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Child. Dev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-008-9227-7","article-title":"The development of hyperactive-impulsive behaviors during the preschool years: The predictive validity of parental assessments","volume":"36","author":"Leblanc","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2013.11.007","article-title":"Factor analysis of the Contextual Fine Motor Questionnaire in children","volume":"35","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Hung, L.Y., Chiu, Y.N., Chang, Y.W., Meng, Y.J., and Tsai, M.F. (2001). The 3rd year end-of-term report of work on the diagnosis, placement and consultation of ADHD students: A research report commissioned by Special Education Unit in the Ministry of Education, Taiwan, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2010.08.014","article-title":"Coincidence of homophone spelling errors and attention problems in schoolchildren: A survey study","volume":"32","author":"Tsai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Meng, L.F. (2004). Do children with developmental coordination disorder comorbid for sensory and perceptual difficulties. National Science Council Report of Taiwan, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh135","article-title":"Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions","volume":"127","author":"Berlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/87565649109540483","article-title":"A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children","volume":"7","author":"Welsh","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1348\/026151008X314919","article-title":"Assessing inattention and impulsivity in children during the Go\/NoGo task","volume":"27","author":"Bezdjian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2004.tb02938.x","article-title":"Impulse control, working memory and other executive functions in preterm children when starting school","volume":"93","author":"Smedler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr. Int. J. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00940","article-title":"The implications of motor and cognitive inhibition for hot and cool executive functions: The case of quadrato motor training","volume":"11","author":"Leshem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1111\/josh.13035","article-title":"Effectiveness of the POWER program in Improving physical activity and executive function in fifth grade students","volume":"91","author":"Hecht","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. School Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.29252\/koomesh.23.1.84","article-title":"Improvement of executive function in children with autism through home playtime program","volume":"23","author":"Pouretemad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Koomesh"}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/8\/10\/922\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:16:05Z","timestamp":1760166965000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/8\/10\/922"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,16]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["children8100922"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children8100922","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,16]]}}}