{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T07:16:22Z","timestamp":1777965382397,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]],"date-time":"2022-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Children"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: A developing area for therapy is teaching children to ride a bicycle. Little has been written about the effectiveness of these programs. This study explored outcomes from participation in a novel bicycle riding program for children with a wide array of developmental challenges. Method: Two studies were conducted; a nonconcurrent, multiple baseline design with four participants and a pretest\u2013posttest single group with 15 children. Results: Study 1 participants improved on broad jump. Balance positions showed variable responses. Study 2 participants showed significant improvement on broad jump, and a trend toward significance walking forwards and backwards. Parents reported improvement in following rules, participating in daily routines, interacting with peers, and feeling good about him\/herself and a change in child\u2019s participation in community and extracurricular activities. All children improved in glide time or achieved independent riding. Conclusions: Preliminary evidence was found for the effectiveness of one approach for developing motor and social skills within the context of learning to ride a bicycle. Children over the age of 6 years were able to ride a two-wheeled bicycle at the end of the program. Participation suggested improvement in motor coordination and dynamic balance as well as changes in measures of social interaction and self-esteem.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/children9081224","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,14]],"date-time":"2022-08-14T21:09:06Z","timestamp":1660511346000},"page":"1224","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["It\u2019s Not Just about Bicycle Riding: Sensory-Motor, Social and Emotional Benefits for Children with and without Developmental Disabilities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3060-824X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah A.","family":"Schoen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, STAR Institute, Centennial, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vincentia","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, STAR Institute, Centennial, CO 80112, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Valdez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2011.01.028","article-title":"Physical activity interventions and children\u2019s mental function: An introduction and overview","volume":"52","author":"Tomporowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Healthy Families (2022, July 20). Screen Time and Obsticles to Physical Activities. Available online: https:\/\/www.healthyfamiliesbc.ca\/home\/articles\/screen-time-and-obstacles-physical-activity-children."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/17518420701688649","article-title":"Physical activity for youth with disabilities: A critical need in an underserved population","volume":"11","author":"Rimmer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Neurorehabilit."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2019.104562","article-title":"Understanding the development of bicycling skills in children: A systematic review","volume":"123","author":"Linus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"35","article-title":"Benefits of learning to ride a two-wheeled bicycle for adolescents with down syndrome and autism spectrum disorder","volume":"31","author":"Hauck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Palaestra"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2003.09.011","article-title":"Rites of passage: Understanding participation of children with developmental coordination disorder","volume":"22","author":"Mandich","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"44","article-title":"ADHD: Is objective diagnosis possible?","volume":"2","author":"Gualtieri","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-0566","article-title":"Promoting the participation of children with disabilities in sports, recreation, and physical activities","volume":"121","author":"Murphy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"364","article-title":"Use of adapted bicycles on the learning of conventional cycling by children with mental retardation","volume":"42","author":"Burt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educ. Train. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1177\/1088357611428333","article-title":"Bicycle training for youth with Down syndrome and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"27","author":"MacDonald","year":"2012","journal-title":"Focus Autism Other Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"10","article-title":"Learning to ride a bike: Developing a therapeutic intervention","volume":"20","author":"Dunford","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child. Young People Fam. Occup. Ther. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1097\/pep.0b013e31804a57d3","article-title":"Use of groups in pediatric physical therapy: Survey of current practices","volume":"19","author":"Fiss","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatric Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/J003v08n04_06","article-title":"Sensorimotor half-day camp","volume":"8","author":"Lust","year":"2009","journal-title":"Occup. Ther. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01048","DOI":"10.1051\/shsconf\/20184801048","article-title":"Investigate the effect of bicycle education provided for children with autism on recognising bicycle and cycling skill","volume":"48","author":"Kavlak","year":"2018","journal-title":"SHS Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20110061","article-title":"Physical activity benefits of learning to ride a two-wheel bicycle for children with Down syndrome: A randomized trial","volume":"91","author":"Ulrich","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-019-04224-5","article-title":"Accelerating motor skill acquisition for bicycle riding in children with ASD: A pilot study","volume":"50","author":"Hawks","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12409","article-title":"Mastering balance: The use of balance bicycles promotes the development of independent cycling","volume":"40","author":"Blommenstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Miller, L.J., Schoen, S.A., and Mulligan, S. (2018). Sensory processing three dimensions manual (SP3D), Western Psychological Services. Unpublished manuscript."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9050","DOI":"10.4081\/ejtm.2020.9050","article-title":"Percentile values of the standing broad jump in children and adolescents aged 6\u201318 years old","volume":"30","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transl. Myol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.61.2.142","article-title":"Identifying gravitational insecurity in children: A pilot study","volume":"61","author":"Koomar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Goodway, J.D., Ozmun, J.C., and Gallahue, D.L. (2019). Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults, Jones & Bartlett Learning."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.15.93","article-title":"Measurements of balance: Comparison of the Timed \u201cUp and Go\u201d test and Functional Reach test with the Berg Balance Scale","volume":"15","author":"Bennie","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"2171","article-title":"Effect of Backward Walking Training on Improves Postural Stability in Children with Down syndrome","volume":"4","author":"Amin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"24","article-title":"Backward walking training improves balance in school-aged boys","volume":"3","author":"Hao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"4","article-title":"The sensory processing 3-dimensions scale: Initial studies of reliability and item analyses","volume":"7","author":"Mulligan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.2014.012377","article-title":"Measurement in sensory modulation: The sensory processing scale assessment","volume":"68","author":"Schoen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kramer, P., Hinojosa, J., and Howe, T. (2018). A frame of reference for sensory processing difficulties: Sensory therapies and research (STAR). Frames of Reference for Pediatric Occupational Therapy, Wolters Kluwer. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Profectum (2022, July 20). DIR-FCD Certificate Courses for Professionals. Available online: https:\/\/profectum.org\/training-programs\/certificate-programs-professionals\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kennedy, C.H. (2005). Single-Case Designs for Education Research, Allyn and Bacon."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1177\/074193258700800206","article-title":"The quantitative synthesis of single-subject research: Methodology and validation","volume":"8","author":"Scruggs","year":"1987","journal-title":"Remedial Spec. Educ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gast, D.L., and Ledford, J.R. (2014). Applied research in education and behavioral sciences. Single Case Research Methodology: Applications in Special Education and Behavioral Sciences, Routledge. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203521892"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merce, C., Pereira, J.V., Branco, M., Catela, D., and Cordovil, R. (2021). Training programmes to lean how to ride a bicycle independently for children and youth: A systematic review. Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog.","DOI":"10.1080\/17408989.2021.2005014"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1071","article-title":"Is gravitational insecurity a unicorn","volume":"2","author":"Potegal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Rehabil. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1177\/004005990503700606","article-title":"Adapted bicycles for teaching riding skills","volume":"37","author":"Klein","year":"2005","journal-title":"Teach. Except. Child."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.12.012","article-title":"Relationship between motor skills, participation in leisure activities and quality of life of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: Temporal aspects","volume":"38","author":"Lifshitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."}],"container-title":["Children"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/9\/8\/1224\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:08:16Z","timestamp":1760141296000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9067\/9\/8\/1224"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["children9081224"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children9081224","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]}}}