{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T19:30:48Z","timestamp":1789500648537,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human milk, especially colostrum, is a biologically complex fluid with potent protective properties against gastrointestinal disturbances in infants. Among intestinal protozoa transmitted via the fecal\u2013oral route, this review focuses on Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica, as the protective role of milk-derived factors against these parasites is the most extensively documented. Its protective effects result from a wide range of bioactive components, including mucins, lactoferrin, human milk oligosaccharides, melatonin, and secretory IgA, which support the integrity of the intestinal barrier, regulate immune responses, and inhibit the adhesion and activity of pathogens. The composition of human milk can be influenced by maternal factors such as nutritional status, stress, sleep quality, and physical activity, which may modulate its immunological potential. Dietary intake of micronutrients, fermentable fibers, and fermented foods also appears to play a role in shaping the milk\u2019s protective properties. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms by which selected milk components contribute to the defense against protozoan infections in early life and considers how maternal health and lifestyle may affect the effectiveness of these protective mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47080674","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T15:19:02Z","timestamp":1755789542000},"page":"674","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Selected Protective Mechanisms of Human Milk Against Intestinal Protozoal Infections in Infants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"47","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8188-8296","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Wr\u00f3blewska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 24 Kar\u0142owicza St., 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5056-0829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"D\u0142ugosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Industry Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, 3 Seminaryjna St., 85-326 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7887-132X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Wr\u00f3blewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 24 Kar\u0142owicza St., 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1378-5065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaros\u0142aw","family":"Nuszkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 24 Kar\u0142owicza St., 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3479-7738","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Sutkowy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 24 Kar\u0142owicza St., 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4492-4796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alina","family":"Wo\u017aniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 24 Kar\u0142owicza St., 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.03.040","article-title":"The Composition and Physico-Chemical Properties of Human Milk: A Review","volume":"112","author":"Meng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. 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