{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T11:00:25Z","timestamp":1777633225053,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Training Plan for Thousands of Young and Middle-aged Key Teachers in Colleges and Universities of Guangxi (The third batch)","award":["2020GXNSFAA259020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA259020"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Traditional Chinese Medicine Excellent Talent Training Program (the second batch)","award":["2020GXNSFAA259020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA259020"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Natural Science Foundation","award":["2020GXNSFAA259020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020GXNSFAA259020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) activation by seizures elevates toxic tryptophan metabolites linked to seizure exacerbation. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)\/tyrosine kinase B (TrkB) signaling, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial respiratory chain complex dysfunction contribute to temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), but their regulatory links remain unclear. Male Kunming mice were grouped into Control, Control + 1-Methyl-DL-tryptophan (1-MT), TLE, and TLE + 1-MT. TLE was induced with 300 mg\/kg pilocarpine. Two weeks after modeling, 1-MT (50 mg\/kg) was administered twice daily for two weeks in 1-MT groups. Assessments included video monitoring to record seizure frequency and duration; Nissl and Fluoro-Jade B (FJB) staining to evaluate neuronal damage; real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot to detect IDO, BDNF, and TrkB expression; assays for the following oxidative stress markers: malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT); and detection of mitochondrial complex I\/IV activities. Results showed TLE mice had significantly increased IDO expression, BDNF\/TrkB over-activation, elevated oxidative stress, impaired mitochondrial complex I\/IV activities, severe neuronal damage, and increased seizure frequency\/duration. 1-MT intervention reversed all these pathological changes, restoring levels to near-control status. This indicates IDO activation promotes TLE progression, which is associated with modulation of the BDNF\/TrkB signaling pathway, exacerbation of oxidative stress, and impairment of mitochondrial complex I\/IV activities\u2014supporting IDO as a potential therapeutic target for TLE.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47090764","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]],"date-time":"2025-09-17T05:59:51Z","timestamp":1758088791000},"page":"764","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["IDO Activation Affects BDNF\/TrkB Signaling Pathway, Oxidative Stress, and Mitochondrial Enzymatic Activities in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"47","author":[{"given":"Jingwen","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Preventive Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liping","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junling","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Preventive Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ziting","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Preventive Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4717-2390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lun","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(02)00073-X","article-title":"Is epilepsy a progressive disorder? Prospects for new therapeutic approaches in temporal-lobe epilepsy","volume":"1","author":"Sutula","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcaf106","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcaf106","article-title":"Modulating limbic circuits in temporal lobe epilepsy: Impacts on seizures, memory, mood and sleep","volume":"7","author":"Kremen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tice.2025.102789","article-title":"Status epilepticus alters hippocampal ultrastructure in kainic acid rat model","volume":"94","author":"Zhvania","year":"2025","journal-title":"Tissue Cell"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Sun, H., Klein, P.M., and Jensen, F.E. (2015). Neonatal seizures alter NMDA glutamate receptor GluN2A and 3A subunit expression and function in hippocampal CA1 neurons. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2015.00362"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617722000066","article-title":"Social Cognition in Temporal and Frontal Lobe Epilepsy: Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Clinical Recommendations","volume":"29","author":"Ziaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2904","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18409","article-title":"Prevalence, clinical characteristics, and risk factors for psychosis in people with epilepsy: A multicenter retrospective cohort study","volume":"66","author":"Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.13122","article-title":"Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy: A narrative review","volume":"10","author":"Cappelletto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-025-01350-2","article-title":"Prediction of Pharmacoresistance in Drug-Na\u00efve Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Using Ictal EEGs Based on Convolutional Neural Network","volume":"41","author":"Gong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kyriatzis, G., Bernard, A., B\u00f4le, A., Khrestchatisky, M., and Ferhat, L. (2024). In the Rat Hippocampus, Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus Is Associated with Reactive Glia and Concomitant Increased Expression of CD31, PDGFR\u03b2, and Collagen IV in Endothelial Cells and Pericytes of the Blood-Brain Barrier. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202309.2036.v2"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.5603\/pjnns.102426","article-title":"Role of neuroinflammation factors as potential biomarkers of epilepsy: A narrative review","volume":"59","author":"Zawadzka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3920","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-01993-4","article-title":"The Study of Genetic Susceptibility and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"57","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-24-00777","article-title":"Tryptophan metabolism and ischemic stroke: An intricate balance","volume":"21","author":"Yao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1178646917691938","article-title":"Kynurenine Pathway of Tryptophan Metabolism: Regulatory and Functional Aspects","volume":"10","author":"Badawy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Tryptophan Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, Q., Deng, S., and Xiong, L. (2025). Role of Kynurenine and Its Derivatives in Liver Diseases: Recent Advances and Future Clinical Perspectives. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26030968"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hestad, K., Alexander, J., Rootwelt, H., and Aaseth, J.O. (2022). The Role of Tryptophan Dysmetabolism and Quinolinic Acid in Depressive and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12070998"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70075","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.70075","article-title":"The Power Struggle: Kynurenine Pathway Enzyme Knockouts and Brain Mitochondrial Respiration","volume":"169","author":"Szolnoki","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2024.11.005","article-title":"Acyclovir provides protection against 6-OHDA-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells through the kynurenine pathway","volume":"106","author":"Sezen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2025.115142","article-title":"Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 inhibition mediates the therapeutic effects in Parkinson\u2019s disease mice by modulating inflammation and neurogenesis in a gut microbiota dependent manner","volume":"385","author":"Qiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2025.107707","article-title":"Cleavage of the TrkB-FL receptor during epileptogenesis: Insights from a kainic acid-induced model of epilepsy and human samples","volume":"215","author":"Paulo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03499-x","article-title":"Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells ameliorate perioperative neurocognitive disorder by inhibiting inflammatory responses and activating BDNF\/TrkB\/CREB signaling pathway in aged mice","volume":"14","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Numakawa, T., and Kajihara, R. (2025). The Role of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor as an Essential Mediator in Neuronal Functions and the Therapeutic Potential of Its Mimetics for Neuroprotection in Neurologic and Psychiatric Disorders. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30040848"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2023.101930","article-title":"Perampanel increases seizure threshold in pentylenetetrazole-kindled mice and improves behavioral dysfunctions by modifying mRNA expression levels of BDNF\/TrkB and inflammatory markers","volume":"32","author":"Perveen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Percie du Sert, N., Ahluwalia, A., Alam, S., Avey, M.T., Baker, M., Browne, W.J., Clark, A., Cuthill, I.C., Dirnagl, U., and Emerson, M. (2020). Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLoS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000411"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(72)90177-0","article-title":"Modification of seizure activity by electrical stimulation. II. Motor seizure","volume":"32","author":"Racine","year":"1972","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6606","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7606","article-title":"Aberrant hippocampal neurogenesis contributes to epilepsy and associated cognitive decline","volume":"6","author":"Cho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.104343","article-title":"A mathematical model of neuroimmune interactions in epileptogenesis for discovering treatment strategies","volume":"25","author":"Batulin","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2008.04.019","article-title":"The pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"172","author":"Curia","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-11-41","article-title":"Activation of brain indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase contributes to epilepsy-associated depressive-like behavior in rats with chronic temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"11","author":"Xie","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.2001.1262","article-title":"Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2\u2212\u0394\u0394CT Method","volume":"25","author":"Livak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, N., Hu, J., Hong, Y., Ding, Y., Xiong, Y., Wu, Z., and Xie, W. (2021). Indoleamine-2,3-Dioxygenase 1 Deficiency Suppresses Seizures in Epilepsy. Front. Cell Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.638854"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1554","article-title":"Chaihu Shugan Decoction improves temporal lobe epilepsy associated depressive-like behavior which was resisted to fluoxetine by normalizing periphery tryptophan metabolites","volume":"33","author":"Cai","year":"2018","journal-title":"China J. Tradit. Chin. Med. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2021.03.009","article-title":"IDO-1 inhibition protects against neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in 6-OHDA induced murine model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"84","author":"Sodhi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0076-7","article-title":"Leucine competes with kynurenine for blood-to-brain transport and prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced depression-like behavior in mice","volume":"24","author":"Walker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3257","article-title":"Kynurenines in the mammalian brain: When physiology meets pathology","volume":"13","author":"Schwarcz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2174\/1567202054368326","article-title":"Role of kynurenines in the central and peripheral nervous systems","volume":"2","author":"Toldi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Neurovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2019.134576","article-title":"Impaired metabolism of kynurenine and its metabolites in CSF of parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"714","author":"Iwaoka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2016.01.011","article-title":"L-Tryptophan-kynurenine pathway enzymes are therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric diseases: Focus on cell type differences","volume":"112","author":"Fujigaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01688-x","article-title":"Associations between expression of indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase enzyme and inflammatory cytokines in patients with first-episode drug-naive Schizophrenia","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1139\/jpn.0402","article-title":"The role of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in the pathophysiology of interferon-alpha-induced depression","volume":"29","author":"Wichers","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2015.08.003","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction related to cell damage induced by 3-hydroxykynurenine and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid: Non-dependent-effect of early reactive oxygen species production","volume":"50","author":"Cervantes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21328","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms141121328","article-title":"Quinolinic acid: Neurotoxin or oxidative stress modulator?","volume":"14","author":"Kubicova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pukoli, D., and V\u00e9csei, L. (2025). Kynurenines and Mitochondrial Disturbances in Multiple Sclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115098"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2015.05.054","article-title":"Absence epileptic activity changing effects of non-adenosine nucleoside inosine, guanosine and uridine in Wistar Albino Glaxo Rijswijk rats","volume":"300","author":"Dobolyi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palasz, E., Wysocka, A., Gasiorowska, A., Chalimoniuk, M., Niewiadomski, W., and Niewiadomska, G. (2020). BDNF as a Promising Therapeutic Agent in Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21031170"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-2615-9","article-title":"Astrocytic BDNF and TrkB regulate severity and neuronal activity in mouse models of temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"11","author":"Longueville","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-014-0151-9","article-title":"The effect of soybean isoflavone on the dysregulation of NMDA receptor signaling pathway induced by \u03b2-amyloid peptides 1-42 in rats","volume":"35","author":"Xi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-024-02924-1","article-title":"Enhanced NMDA receptor pathway and glutamate transmission in the hippocampal dentate gyrus mediate the spatial learning and memory impairment of obese rats","volume":"476","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2019.07.032","article-title":"Trans-cinnamaldehyde improves neuroinflammation-mediated NMDA receptor dysfunction and memory deficits through blocking NF-\u03baB pathway in presenilin1\/2 conditional double knockout mice","volume":"82","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-006-9045-9","article-title":"CREB and NF-kappaB transcription factors regulate sensitivity to excitotoxic and oxidative stress induced neuronal cell death","volume":"26","author":"Zou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Chen, X., Wang, C., Sun, Y., Gong, B., Li, D., Wu, Y., Liu, Y., and Wei, J. (2025). Antidepressant Activity of Agarwood Essential Oil: A Mechanistic Study on Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Signaling Pathways. Pharmaceuticals, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18020255"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2013.02.002","article-title":"Mitochondrial involvement and oxidative stress in temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"62","author":"Rowley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2018.1465410","article-title":"Oxidative stress in epilepsy","volume":"18","author":"Geronzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8416763","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/8416763","article-title":"Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health","volume":"2017","author":"Pizzino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2019.01.015","article-title":"Surveillance and transportation of mitochondria in neurons","volume":"57","author":"Vanhauwaert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Wong, H.S. (2021). Are mitochondria the main contributor of reactive oxygen species in cells?. J. Exp. Biol., 224.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.221606"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.2174\/1871527322666230330083757","article-title":"Acetyl-L-carnitine and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Current Evidence and Potential use","volume":"23","author":"Venkatesan","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s40828-019-0085-4","article-title":"Electron carriers and energy conservation in mitochondrial respiration","volume":"5","author":"Ramsay","year":"2019","journal-title":"ChemTexts"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kageyama, Y., Okura, S., Sukigara, A., Matsunaga, A., Maekubo, K., Oue, T., Ishihara, K., Deguchi, Y., and Inoue, K. (2025). The Association Among Bipolar Disorder, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Reactive Oxygen Species. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15030383"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tice.2025.102889","article-title":"The antioxidant and anticonvulsant effects of ellagic acid in kainic acid-induced temporal lobe epilepsy in mice","volume":"95","author":"Nesari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Tissue Cell"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2025.114588","article-title":"Herkinorin ameliorates neuronal damage in a pentylenetetrazol-induced epilepsy rat model through altering microglial and astrocytic activation by inhibiting PARP1 and NF-\u03baB","volume":"155","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6989","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-024-03080-0","article-title":"Neuroprotective effects of chlorogenic acid against oxidative stress in rats subjected to lithium-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus","volume":"397","author":"Liberato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paiva, B.S., Neves, D., Tom\u00e9, D., Costa, F.J., Bruno, I.C., Trigo, D., Silva, R.M., and Almeida, R.D. (2025). Neuroprotection by Mitochondrial NAD Against Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14080582"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1002\/ame2.12310","article-title":"Mitochondrial transplantation ameliorates hippocampal damage following status epilepticus","volume":"6","author":"Jia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anim. Model. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2024.105925","article-title":"Hydrogen inhalation exerts anti-seizure effects by preventing oxidative stress and inflammation in the hippocampus in a rat model of kainic acid-induced seizures","volume":"183","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K.-M., Huang, Y., Wan, P.-P., Lu, Y.-H., Zhou, N., Li, J.-J., Yu, C.-Y., Chou, J.-J., Zhang, L., and Zhang, C. (2022). Ursolic Acid Protects Neurons in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and Cognitive Impairment by Repressing Inflammation and Oxidation. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.877898"}],"container-title":["Current Issues in Molecular Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/47\/9\/764\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:46:37Z","timestamp":1760035597000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/47\/9\/764"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["cimb47090764"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cimb47090764","relation":{},"ISSN":["1467-3045"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1467-3045","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]}}}