{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T12:56:37Z","timestamp":1777899397560,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thyme (Thymus callieri Borb\u00e1s ex Velen) and summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.) are aromatic plants from the Lamiaceae family widely used in traditional medicine and the food industry. This study provides a comparative analysis of the phytochemical profiles and biological potential of the essential oils (EOs) of these two plant species from Bulgaria. The chemical composition was determined using GC-MS analysis. Biological evaluation included determination of antioxidant activity (DPPH assay), antimicrobial activity (MIC assay), ex vivo anti-inflammatory effects (IL-1\u03b2 expression in rat stomach smooth muscle preparations), and in vitro antihemolytic activity. GC-MS analysis identified 16 compounds in T. callieri EO, dominated by p-cymene (46.42%) and thymol (35.80%). In contrast, 17 compounds were identified in S. hortensis EO, with carvacrol (58.81%) and \u03b3-terpinene (22.46%) as major constituents. Both EOs exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant activity, with S. hortensis showing higher radical scavenging potential. In antimicrobial tests, both oils demonstrated broad-spectrum efficacy with MIC values ranging from 0.313 to 2.5 mg\/mL. Ex vivo experiments revealed that T. callieri EO significantly increased IL-1\u03b2 expression, suggesting immune activation, while S. hortensis EO showed a lower effect, indicating higher anti-inflammatory potential. Furthermore, S. hortensis EO demonstrated superior erythrocyte membrane stabilization (antihemolytic activity) compared to T. callieri EO and the reference anti-inflammatory drug Aspirin. In conclusion, the findings highlighted the distinct biological potential of both Bulgarian EOs, suggesting their diverse applicability as natural bioactive agents in the pharmaceutical and food industries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb48050470","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T09:33:17Z","timestamp":1777627997000},"page":"470","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Bulgarian Thyme (Thymus callieri Borb\u00e1s ex Velen) and Summer Savory (Satureja hortensis L.) Essential Oils"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1674-5333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yulian","family":"Tumbarski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritsa Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6826-2723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Ivanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Food Technologies, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0276-4170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivayla","family":"Dincheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agrobiotechnologies, Agrobioinstitute, Agricultural Academy, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3765-8338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albena","family":"Parzhanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Technologies, Institute of Food Preservation and Quality, Agricultural Academy, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0411-2291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mina","family":"Pencheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9252","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules15129252","article-title":"Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oils: A Short Review","volume":"15","author":"Miguel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tullio, V., Roana, J., Cavallo, L., and Mandras, N. (2023). Immune Defences: A View from the Side of the Essential Oils. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28010435"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latorre, R., Valerii, M.C., Benati, M., Lewis, R.E., Spigarelli, R., Bernacchi, A., Lippi, G., Spisni, E., and Gaibani, P. (2025). Lights and Shadows of Essential Oil-Derived Compounds: Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Eugenol, Thymol, Cinnamaldehyde, and Carvacrol. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 47.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47110915"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sattayakhom, A., Wichit, S., and Koomhin, P. (2023). The Effects of Essential Oils on the Nervous System: A Scoping Review. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28093771"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenova, Y., Boycheva, P., Dyankov, S., Dzhakova, Z., Dzhoglova, V., Todorova, S., Ivanova, S., and Slavov, I. (2025). Chemical Composition of Thymus Species from Bulgarian Flora. Diversity, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/d17090596"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parzhanova, A., Yanakieva, V., Vasileva, I., Momchilova, M., Dimitrov, D., Ivanova, P., and Tumbarski, Y. (2023). Physicochemical, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Properties of Three Medicinal Plants from the Western Part of the Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria. Life, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.0679.v1"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satyal, P., Murray, B.L., McFeeters, R.L., and Setzer, W.N. (2016). Essential Oil Characterization of Thymus vulgaris from Various Geographical Locations. Foods, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods5040070"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trendafilova, A., Todorova, M., Ivanova, V., Zhelev, P., and Aneva, I. (2023). Essential Oil Composition of Ten Species from Sect. Serpyllum of Genus Thymus Growing in Bulgaria. Diversity, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/d15060759"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ejaz, A., Waliat, S., Arshad, M.S., Khalid, W., Khalid, M.Z., Rasul Suleria, H.A., Luca, M.-I., Mironeasa, C., Batariuc, A., and Ungureanu-Iuga, M. (2023). A comprehensive review of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.): Promising ingredient for production of functional foods. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1198970"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fierascu, I., Dinu-Pirvu, C.E., Fierascu, R.C., Velescu, B.S., Anuta, V., Ortan, A., and Jinga, V. (2018). Phytochemical Profile and Biological Activities of Satureja hortensis L.: A Review of the Last Decade. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23102458"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grigore-Gurgu, L., Dumitra\u0219cu, L., and Aprodu, I. (2025). Aromatic Herbs as a Source of Bioactive Compounds: An Overview of Their Antioxidant Capacity, Antimicrobial Activity, and Major Applications. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30061304"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bezi\u0107, N., Samani\u0107, I., Dunki\u0107, V., Besendorfer, V., and Puizina, J. (2009). Essential oil composition and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence variability of four South-Croatian Satureja species (Lamiaceae). Molecules, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14030925"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3143","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1516661","article-title":"Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant activities of two Winter savory subspecies (Satureja montana subsp. variegata and Satureja montana subsp. montana) cultivated in Northern Italy","volume":"33","author":"Caprioli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4986","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2451","article-title":"Essential oil constituents and variations in antioxidant compounds of dried summer savory (Satureja hortensis cv. Saturn) affected by storage conditions and ammonium sulfate","volume":"9","author":"Mohtashami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popa, M., M\u0103ru\u021bescu, L., Oprea, E., Bleotu, C., Kamerzan, C., Chifiriuc, M.C., and Gr\u0103di\u0219teanu Pircalabioru, G. (2020). In Vitro Evaluation of the Antimicrobial and Immunomodulatory Activity of Culinary Herb Essential Oils as Potential Perioceutics. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9070428"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"657026","article-title":"Effects of Thymol and Carvacrol, Constituents of Thymus vulgaris L. Essential Oil, on the Inflammatory Response","volume":"2012","author":"Kummer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gago, C., Serralheiro, A., and Miguel, M.d.G. (2025). Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Thymol and Thymol-Rich Essential Oils: Mechanisms, Applications, and Recent Findings. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30112450"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-2017-0107","article-title":"GC-MS characterization of n-hexane soluble fraction from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H. Wigg.) aerial parts and its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties","volume":"73","author":"Ivanov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch. C"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"296","article-title":"Antioxidant activities and phenolic compounds in Bulgarian Fumaria species","volume":"3","author":"Ivanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.59393\/amb24400415","article-title":"Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential and Antimicrobial Activity of Five Culinary Plants and Their Application in the Design of Prebiotic Vegan Mayonnaises","volume":"40","author":"Tumbarski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Bulg."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"e2024011","article-title":"Design of functional yogurts with microencapsulated biologically active compounds","volume":"23","author":"Tumbarski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Life Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milusheva, M., Todorova, M., Gledacheva, V., Stefanova, I., Feizi-Dehnayebi, M., Pencheva, M., Nedialkov, P., Tumbarski, Y., Yanakieva, V., and Tsoneva, S. (2023). Novel Anthranilic Acid Hybrids\u2014An Alternative Weapon against Inflammatory Diseases. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16121660"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17832","DOI":"10.1590\/s2175-97902019000217832","article-title":"Evaluation of in vitro and in vivo therapeutic efficacy of Ribes alpestre Decne in Rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"55","author":"Alamgeer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Braz. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.1997.9700754","article-title":"Composition of the essential oils of Thymus atticus and Thymus roegneri from Turkey","volume":"9","author":"Kirimer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"131","article-title":"Ecological variation of yield and aroma components of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.)","volume":"7","author":"Katar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasouli, F., Amini, T., Skrovankova, S., Asadi, M., Hassanpouraghdam, M.B., Ercisli, S., Buckova, M., Mrazkova, M., and Mlcek, J. (2023). Influence of drought stress and mycorrhizal (Funneliformis mosseae) symbiosis on growth parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence, antioxidant activity, and essential oil composition of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.) plants. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1151467"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"fa35","article-title":"Identification of chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.) essential oil","volume":"27","author":"Izadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Razi J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"315","article-title":"Antioxidant Properties Of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) And Wild Thyme (Thymus serpyllum L.) Essential Oils","volume":"17","author":"Kulisic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ital. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e244675","DOI":"10.1590\/1519-6984.244675","article-title":"Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Thymus vulgaris essential oil contained and synthesis thymus (Vulgaris) silver nanoparticles","volume":"83","author":"Aldosary","year":"2023","journal-title":"Braz. J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2404","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6959","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and essential oil composition of Satureja hortensis L. as influenced by sulfur fertilizer","volume":"95","author":"Najafian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21322","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78263-9","article-title":"Chemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and thermal behavior of Satureja hortensis essential oil","volume":"10","author":"Chambre","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70733","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.70733","article-title":"Phytochemical Traits and Biological Activity of Satureja hortensis and Satureja macrantha as Culinary Spices Using GC-MS\/MS and LC-MS\/MS Techniques","volume":"13","author":"Elmdoustazar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2015.07.037","article-title":"Application of linear multivariate calibration techniques to identify the peaks responsible for the antioxidant activity of Satureja hortensis L. and Oliveria decumbens Vent. essential oils by gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry","volume":"1001","author":"Samadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022","article-title":"Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods\u2014A review","volume":"94","author":"Burt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyldgaard, M., Mygind, T., and Meyer, R.L. (2012). Essential oils in food preservation: Mode of action, synergies, and interactions with food matrix components. Front. Microbiol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00012"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.4.1561-1568.2002","article-title":"The phenolic hydroxyl group of carvacrol is essential for action against the food-borne pathogen Bacillus cereus","volume":"68","author":"Ultee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.E., Lee, J.E., Huh, M.J., Lee, S.C., Seo, S.M., Kwon, J.H., and Park, I.K. (2019). Fumigant Antifungal Activity via Reactive Oxygen Species of Thymus vulgaris and Satureja hortensis Essential Oils and Constituents against Raffaelea quercus-mongolicae and Rhizoctonia solani. Biomolecules, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom9100561"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"194","article-title":"Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Satureja hortensis and Trachyspermum copticum essential oil","volume":"3","author":"Mahboubi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Iran. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"932","article-title":"A Comparative Study on the Biological Activity of Essential Oil and Total Hydro-Alcoholic Extract of Satureja hortensis L.","volume":"18","author":"Popovici","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.5937\/FFR1801037T","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes","volume":"45","author":"Varga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Feed Res."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"104706","article-title":"Effects of Thyme Extract Oils (Thymus vulgaris, Thymus zygis, Thymus hyemalis) on cytokine production and gene expression in oxLDL-stimulated THP-1 macrophages","volume":"2012","author":"Reglero","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prmcm.2021.100010","article-title":"Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of Thymus vulgaris, Zataria multiflora, and Portulaca oleracea and their constituents","volume":"1","author":"Khazdair","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res.\u2013Mod. Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-017-8933-z","article-title":"Thymus vulgaris L. and thymol assist murine macrophages (RAW 264.7) in the control of in vitro infections by Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans","volume":"65","author":"Figueira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/15321819.2018.1480495","article-title":"Inhibition of LPS-induced inflammatory responses by Satureja hortensis extracts in J774.1 macrophages","volume":"39","author":"Farzaneh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunoass. Immunochem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Movahhedkhah, S., Rasouli, B., Seidavi, A., Mazzei, D., Laudadio, V., and Tufarelli, V. (2019). Summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.) extract as natural feed additive in broilers: Effects on growth, plasma constituents, immune response, and ileal microflora. Animals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani9030087"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1159\/000333555","article-title":"Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Satureja hortensis seed essential oil, hydroalcoholic and polyphenolic extracts in animal models","volume":"21","author":"Hajhashemi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandur, E., Micalizzi, G., Mondello, L., Horv\u00e1th, A., Sipos, K., and Horv\u00e1th, G. (2022). Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) Essential Oils Prepared at Different Plant Phenophases on Pseudomonas aeruginosa LPS-Activated THP-1 Macrophages. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11071330"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"103","article-title":"Study the antioxidant and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity by membrane stabilization method of Amaranthus gangeticus leaf extract","volume":"6","author":"De","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avasiloaiei, D.I., Calara, M., Brezeanu, P.M., Murariu, O.C., and Brezeanu, C. (2023). On the Future Perspectives of Some Medicinal Plants within Lamiaceae Botanic Family Regarding Their Comprehensive Properties and Resistance against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses. Genes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14050955"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ydyrys, A., Zhamanbayeva, G., Zhaparkulova, N., Aralbaeva, A., Askerbay, G., Kenzheyeva, Z., Tussupbekova, G., Syraiyl, S., Kaparbay, R., and Murzakhmetova, M. (2024). The Systematic Assessment of the Membrane-Stabilizing and Antioxidant Activities of Several Kazakhstani Plants in the Asteraceae Family. Plants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13010096"}],"container-title":["Current Issues in Molecular Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/48\/5\/470\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T10:00:52Z","timestamp":1777629652000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/48\/5\/470"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["cimb48050470"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cimb48050470","relation":{},"ISSN":["1467-3045"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1467-3045","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]}}}