{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T23:04:08Z","timestamp":1788217448813,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent studies have reported skin microbiome dysbiosis in patients with photodermatoses, featuring enriched Staphylococcus aureus colonization and decreased microbiome diversity. We propose that ultraviolet radiation (UVR), along with atypical antimicrobial peptides, may exert selective pressure on the skin microbiome, while cytokine dysregulation and a reduction in commensal bacteria amplify microbial dysbiosis. Dysbiotic microorganisms further release pathogen-associated patterns and virulence factors, and activate tissue-resident memory T cells, which collectively contribute to local inflammation. These mechanisms establish the skin microbiome as a potential target for early intervention. Potential therapeutic strategies may include antibiotics, phototherapy, bleach baths, phage therapy, and microbiota-based therapies. This review integrates current findings from microbial ecology, molecular biology, and host immunology to outline a conceptual framework linking UVR exposure, microbiome alterations, and cutaneous immune responses, while emphasizing the current limitations and evidence gaps in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb48050493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T10:33:21Z","timestamp":1778841201000},"page":"493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Microbial Dysbiosis in Photodermatoses: Formation, Pathogenesis and Intervention Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4246-6251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lanhai","family":"Zhong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8004-6006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lu","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiande","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5039-9385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qun","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital of the Martin Luther University Halle, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany"},{"name":"Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, BG Hospital Bergmannstrost Halle, 06112 Halle (Saale), Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naiyu","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.18772","article-title":"Systematic Review of the Prevalence and Incidence of the Photodermatoses with Meta-Analysis of the Prevalence of Polymorphic Light Eruption","volume":"37","author":"Burfield","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. JEADV"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.18326","article-title":"Quality of Life and Psychological Impact in the Photodermatoses: A Systematic Review","volume":"182","author":"Rutter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carmona-Cruz, S., Orozco-Covarrubias, L., and S\u00e1ez-de-Ocariz, M. (2022). The Human Skin Microbiome in Selected Cutaneous Diseases. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.834135"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fer\u010dek, I., Lugovi\u0107-Mihi\u0107, L., Tambi\u0107-Andra\u0161evi\u0107, A., \u0106esi\u0107, D., Grgini\u0107, A.G., Be\u0161li\u0107, I., Mravak-Stipeti\u0107, M., Mihatov-\u0160tefanovi\u0107, I., Bunti\u0107, A.-M., and \u010civljak, R. (2021). Features of the Skin Microbiota in Common Inflammatory Skin Diseases. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11090962"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.698","article-title":"The Association of the Skin Microbiota With Health, Immunity, and Disease","volume":"102","author":"Egert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25177","article-title":"Skin Microbiota-Host Interactions","volume":"553","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.03.014","article-title":"Dysbiosis and Staphylococcus aureus Colonization Drives Inflammation in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"42","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.131029.111","article-title":"Temporal Shifts in the Skin Microbiome Associated with Disease Flares and Treatment in Children with Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"22","author":"Kong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01432-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01432-18","article-title":"A Natural History of Actinic Keratosis and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Microbiomes","volume":"9","author":"Wood","year":"2018","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2019.11.016","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Colonization Is Increased on Lupus Skin Lesions and Is Promoted by IFN-Mediated Barrier Disruption","volume":"140","author":"Sirobhushanam","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1093\/bjd\/ljae464","article-title":"Skin Microbiome Dynamics in Patients with Polymorphic Light Eruption in Response to Ultraviolet Radiation","volume":"192","author":"Amar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70022","DOI":"10.1111\/phpp.70022","article-title":"16S rRNA Sequencing Reveals Dysbiosis of Skin Microbiome Associated With Disease Severity in Chronic Actinic Dermatitis","volume":"41","author":"Tu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15034","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.15034","article-title":"Eradication of Skin Microbiota Restores Cytokine Production and Release in Polymorphic Light Eruption","volume":"33","author":"Zarfl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaah4680","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aah4680","article-title":"Antimicrobials from Human Skin Commensal Bacteria Protect against Staphylococcus aureus and Are Deficient in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"9","author":"Nakatsuji","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bromfield, J.I., Hugenholtz, P., Frazer, I.H., Khosrotehrani, K., and Chandra, J. (2023). Targeting Staphylococcus aureus Dominated Skin Dysbiosis in Actinic Keratosis to Prevent the Onset of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Outlook for Future Therapies?. Front. Oncol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1091379"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1177486","article-title":"Bacterial Community Variation in Human Body Habitats across Space and Time","volume":"326","author":"Costello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2021.1311","article-title":"Use of Autologous Bacteriotherapy to Treat Staphylococcus aureus in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial","volume":"157","author":"Nakatsuji","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01256-2","article-title":"Development of a Human Skin Commensal Microbe for Bacteriotherapy of Atopic Dermatitis and Use in a Phase 1 Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"27","author":"Nakatsuji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.19125","article-title":"Skin Microbiome Dysbiosis and the Role of Staphylococcus aureus in Atopic Dermatitis in Adults and Children: A Narrative Review","volume":"37","author":"Kerob","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. JEADV"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozas, M., Hart De Ruijter, A., Fabrega, M.J., Zorgani, A., Guell, M., Paetzold, B., and Brillet, F. (2021). From Dysbiosis to Healthy Skin: Major Contributions of Cutibacterium acnes to Skin Homeostasis. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9030628"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.13854","article-title":"Ultraviolet Radiation, Both UVA and UVB, Influences the Composition of the Skin Microbiome","volume":"28","author":"Burns","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2019.04.026","article-title":"Skin Microbiome Modulates the Effect of Ultraviolet Radiation on Cellular Response and Immune Function","volume":"15","author":"Patra","year":"2019","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.157","article-title":"The Human Skin Microbiome","volume":"16","author":"Byrd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"3191","article-title":"A Mendelian Randomization Analysis Reveals the Role of the Skin Microbiota in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"44","author":"Yin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2019.102391","article-title":"Disordered Cutaneous Microbiota in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"108","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1177\/09612033211025095","article-title":"Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Patients Have a Distinct Structural and Functional Skin Microbiota Compared with Controls","volume":"30","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm9811","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abm9811","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Skin Colonization Promotes SLE-like Autoimmune Inflammation via Neutrophil Activation and the IL-23\/IL-17 Axis","volume":"7","author":"Terui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3689","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25811","article-title":"The Aim of the Measurement of Epstein-Barr Virus DNA in Hydroa Vacciniforme and Hypersensitivity to Mosquito Bites","volume":"92","author":"Miyake","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"e26","article-title":"Demodex Mites in Acne Rosacea: Reflectance Confocal Microscopic Study","volume":"58","author":"Erdemir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Australas. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2014.04.002","article-title":"Microbiota of Demodex Mites from Rosacea Patients and Controls","volume":"71\u201372","author":"Murillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1684\/ejd.2023.4619","article-title":"Characterisation of the Bacterial Microbiome in Patients with Rosacea and Healthy Controls","volume":"33","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dermatol. EJD"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555-2847","article-title":"Decrease in Diversity of Propionibacterium Acnes Phylotypes in Patients with Severe Acne on the Back","volume":"98","author":"Dagnelie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0533-1","article-title":"Alteration of the Cutaneous Microbiome in Psoriasis and Potential Role in Th17 Polarization","volume":"6","author":"Chang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.2147\/CCID.S464431","article-title":"An Observational Study: Association between Atopic Dermatitis and Bacterial Colony of the Skin Based on 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"54","article-title":"Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation, Visible Light, and Infrared Radiation on Erythema and Pigmentation: A Review","volume":"12","author":"Sklar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. Off. J. Eur. Photochem. Assoc. Eur. Soc. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patra, V., Byrne, S.N., and Wolf, P. (2016). The Skin Microbiome: Is It Affected by UV-Induced Immune Suppression?. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01235"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.14454","article-title":"Skin Microbiome and Antimicrobial Peptides","volume":"30","author":"Zeeuwen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chessa, C., Bodet, C., Jousselin, C., Wehbe, M., L\u00e9v\u00eaque, N., and Garcia, M. (2020). Antiviral and Immunomodulatory Properties of Antimicrobial Peptides Produced by Human Keratinocytes. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01155"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2009.01.043","article-title":"UV-B Radiation Induces the Expression of Antimicrobial Peptides in Human Keratinocytes In Vitro and In Vivo","volume":"123","author":"Navid","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2010.123","article-title":"Activation of TLR2 by a Small Molecule Produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis Increases Antimicrobial Defense against Bacterial Skin Infections","volume":"130","author":"Lai","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-202X.2005.23705.x","article-title":"Distinct Strains of Propionibacterium Acnes Induce Selective Human Beta-Defensin-2 and Interleukin-8 Expression in Human Keratinocytes through Toll-like Receptors","volume":"124","author":"Nagy","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"941","article-title":"Microbiota and Maintenance of Skin Barrier Function","volume":"376","author":"Grice","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/phpp.12355","article-title":"Unique Profile of Antimicrobial Peptide Expression in Polymorphic Light Eruption Lesions Compared to Healthy Skin, Atopic Dermatitis, and Psoriasis","volume":"34","author":"Patra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1039\/c2pp25158b","article-title":"Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Upregulation of Antimicrobial Proteins in Health and Disease","volume":"12","author":"Felton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.13162","article-title":"Microbial Elements as the Initial Triggers in the Pathogenesis of Polymorphic Light Eruption?","volume":"25","author":"Patra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, M.L., O\u2019Neill, C.A., Dickinson, M.R., Chavan, B., and McBain, A.J. (2023). Exploring Associations between Skin, the Dermal Microbiome, and Ultraviolet Radiation: Advancing Possibilities for next-Generation Sunscreens. Front. Microbiomes, 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/frmbi.2023.1102315"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/php.13962","article-title":"Exploring the Impact of Solar Radiation on Skin Microbiome to Develop Improved Photoprotection Strategies","volume":"101","author":"Gilaberte","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaat8329","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aat8329","article-title":"Quorum Sensing between Bacterial Species on the Skin Protects against Epidermal Injury in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"11","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramsey, M.M., Freire, M.O., Gabrilska, R.A., Rumbaugh, K.P., and Lemon, K.P. (2016). Staphylococcus aureus Shifts toward Commensalism in Response to Corynebacterium Species. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01230"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2018-213197","article-title":"Photosensitivity and Type I IFN Responses in Cutaneous Lupus Are Driven by Epidermal Derived Interferon Kappa","volume":"77","author":"Sarkar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2016.09.008","article-title":"Lupus Skin Is Primed for IL-6 Inflammatory Responses through a Keratinocyte-Mediated Autocrine Type I Interferon Loop","volume":"137","author":"Stannard","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1595","DOI":"10.2147\/CCID.S409534","article-title":"Association Between Skin Acid Mantle, Natural Moisturizing Factors, and Antibacterial Activity Against S. aureus in the Stratum Corneum","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.09.015","article-title":"Effect of Filaggrin Breakdown Products on Growth of and Protein Expression by Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"126","author":"Miajlovic","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patra, V., Laoubi, L., Nicolas, J.-F., Vocanson, M., and Wolf, P. (2018). A Perspective on the Interplay of Ultraviolet-Radiation, Skin Microbiome and Skin Resident Memory TCR\u03b1\u03b2+ Cells. Front. Med., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2018.00166"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2025, July 15). Association of Polymorphous Light Eruption with NOD-2 and TLR-5 Gene Polymorphisms\u2014PubMed, Available online: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/35748133\/."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krueger, A., Zaugg, J., Chisholm, S., Linedale, R., Lachner, N., Teoh, S.M., Tuong, Z.K., Lukowski, S.W., Morrison, M., and Soyer, H.P. (2022). Secreted Toxins from Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated from Keratinocyte Skin Cancers Mediate Pro-Tumorigenic Inflammatory Responses in the Skin. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.789042"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.11.015","article-title":"The Microbiome in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"143","author":"Paller","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2019.01.008","article-title":"Commensal Staphylococci Influence Staphylococcus aureus Skin Colonization and Disease","volume":"27","author":"Parlet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patra, V., Gallais S\u00e9r\u00e9zal, I., and Wolf, P. (2020). Potential of Skin Microbiome, Pro- and\/or Pre-Biotics to Affect Local Cutaneous Responses to UV Exposure. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061795"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vu, T.T., Koguchi-Yoshioka, H., and Watanabe, R. (2021). Skin-Resident Memory T Cells: Pathogenesis and Implication for the Treatment of Psoriasis. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10173822"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iqae006","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfimm\/iqae006","article-title":"The Emerging Role of Effector Functions Exerted by Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells","volume":"5","author":"Iijima","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oxf. Open Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Y., Zhang, J., Wu, L., Zhang, C., Zheng, F., Yang, Y., Lu, G., and Xie, D. (2025). Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells in Rheumatoid Immune Diseases: Pathogenic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13122945"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-019-0359-1","article-title":"Local Heroes or Villains: Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells in Human Health and Disease","volume":"17","author":"Sasson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.108646","article-title":"Targeting Abatacept-Resistant T-Helper-17 Cells by Aldehyde Dehydrogenase Inhibition","volume":"27","author":"Tokifuji","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51820","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202551820","article-title":"Tissue-Resident Memory and Follicular\/Peripheral Helper PD-1+ T Cells Infiltrate Lesional Skin in Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"55","author":"Mehta","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, G.E., Harris, J.E., and Richmond, J.M. (2021). Resident Memory T Cells in Autoimmune Skin Diseases. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.652191"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-019-0291-4","article-title":"Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells and Their Biological Characteristics in the Recurrence of Inflammatory Skin Disorders","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patra, V., Strobl, J., Atzm\u00fcller, D., Reininger, B., Kleissl, L., Gruber-Wackernagel, A., Nicolas, J.-F., Stary, G., Vocanson, M., and Wolf, P. (2022). Accumulation of Cytotoxic Skin Resident Memory T Cells and Increased Expression of IL-15 in Lesional Skin of Polymorphic Light Eruption. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.908047"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1111\/phpp.12848","article-title":"A Postulated Model for Photoimmunopathogenesis of Chronic Actinic Dermatitis around Adaptive Immunity, Including Th17 Cells, Tregs, TRMs, Cytotoxic T Cells, and\/or Common-\u03b3 Chain Receptor+ Cells","volume":"39","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.08.048","article-title":"A Skewed Pool of Resident T Cells Triggers Psoriasis-Associated Tissue Responses in Never-Lesional Skin from Patients with Psoriasis","volume":"143","author":"Hoffer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-022-00491-1","article-title":"Regulation of Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells by the Microbiota","volume":"15","author":"Hand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabq3254","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abq3254","article-title":"Local IL-23 Is Required for Proliferation and Retention of Skin-Resident Memory Th17 Cells","volume":"7","author":"Whitley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2022.166629","article-title":"Intranasal Streptococcal Infection Exacerbates Psoriasis-like Dermatitis via the Induction of Skin Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells","volume":"1869","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2024.03.032","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus\u2013Specific Skin Resident Memory T Cells Protect against Bacteria Colonization but Exacerbate Atopic Dermatitis\u2013like Flares in Mice","volume":"154","author":"Braun","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, T., Yazdi, A.S., and Panayotova-Dimitrova, D. (2024). Comparison of Different Keratinocyte Cell Line Models for Analysis of NLRP1 Inflammasome Activation. Biomolecules, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14111427"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ansary, T.M., Hossain, M.R., Kamiya, K., Komine, M., and Ohtsuki, M. (2021). Inflammatory Molecules Associated with Ultraviolet Radiation-Mediated Skin Aging. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22083974"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2025, July 17). Solar UV Radiation Reduces the Barrier Function of Human Skin\u2014PubMed, Available online: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/23027968\/."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"CD003871","article-title":"Interventions to Reduce Staphylococcus aureus in the Management of Eczema","volume":"2019","author":"George","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2019.07.032","article-title":"Mupirocin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Dadashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e808","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-2217","article-title":"Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Colonization in Atopic Dermatitis Decreases Disease Severity","volume":"123","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.3889\/oamjms.2019.061","article-title":"Superantigens of Staphylococcus aureus Colonization in Atopic Dermatitis and Treatment Efficacy of Oral Cefuroxim in Vietnamese Patients","volume":"7","author":"Van","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2018.08.020","article-title":"A Novel Topical Minocycline Foam for the Treatment of Moderate-to-Severe Acne Vulgaris: Results of 2 Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase 3 Studies","volume":"80","author":"Gold","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.5021\/ad.2020.32.1.21","article-title":"Minocycline and Its Impact on Microbial Dysbiosis in the Skin and Gastrointestinal Tract of Acne Patients","volume":"32","author":"Thompson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.17633","article-title":"Management of Acne Vulgaris: A Review","volume":"326","author":"Eichenfield","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2020.12.089","article-title":"The Efficacy and Tolerability of Tetracyclines and Clindamycin plus Rifampicin for the Treatment of Hidradenitis Suppurativa: Results of a Prospective European Cohort Study","volume":"85","author":"Tzellos","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1002\/art.43079","article-title":"Topical Mupirocin Treatment Reduces Interferon and Myeloid Signatures in Cutaneous Lupus Erythematous Lesions through Targeting of Staphylococcus Species","volume":"77","author":"Mears","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-021-00624-5","article-title":"The Use of Lasers and Light Devices in Acne Management: An Update","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1089\/photob.2020.4988","article-title":"Narrow Band Ultraviolet B versus Red Light-Emitting Diodes in the Treatment of Facial Acne Vulgaris: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"39","author":"Eid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Photobiomodulation Photomed. Laser Surg."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"CD013870","article-title":"Phototherapy for Atopic Eczema","volume":"10","author":"Musters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abd.2021.03.001","article-title":"Phototherapy","volume":"96","author":"Barros","year":"2021","journal-title":"An. Bras. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15167","DOI":"10.1111\/dth.15167","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis and Management of Polymorphic Light Eruption","volume":"34","author":"Kadurina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dermatol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"882","article-title":"Phototherapy: Theory and Practice","volume":"21","author":"Kurz","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. J. Ger. Soc. Dermatol. JDDG"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2021.102556","article-title":"Modulation of Skin Microbiome in Acne Patients by Aminolevulinic Acid-Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"36","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Photodiagnosis Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdin.2024.11.011","article-title":"Expert Consensus-Based Recommendations on the Use of Photodynamic Therapy in Actinic Keratosis Patients","volume":"20","author":"Patel","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAAD Int."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartolomeu, M., Rocha, S., Cunha, \u00c2., Neves, M.G.P.M.S., Faustino, M.A.F., and Almeida, A. (2016). Effect of Photodynamic Therapy on the Virulence Factors of Staphylococcus aureus. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00267"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v8.i3.162","article-title":"Phage Therapy: An Alternative to Antibiotics in the Age of Multi-Drug Resistance","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimamori, Y., Mitsunaka, S., Yamashita, H., Suzuki, T., Kitao, T., Kubori, T., Nagai, H., Takeda, S., and Ando, H. (2020). Staphylococcal Phage in Combination with Staphylococcus epidermidis as a Potential Treatment for Staphylococcus aureus-Associated Atopic Dermatitis and Suppressor of Phage-Resistant Mutants. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13010007"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s13099-016-0109-1","article-title":"Bacteriophage Infections of Microbiota Can Lead to Leaky Gut in an Experimental Rodent Model","volume":"8","author":"Tetz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Pathog."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gueniche, A., Perin, O., Bouslimani, A., Landemaine, L., Misra, N., Cupferman, S., Aguilar, L., Clavaud, C., Chopra, T., and Khodr, A. (2022). Advances in Microbiome-Derived Solutions and Methodologies Are Founding a New Era in Skin Health and Care. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11020121"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.12.033","article-title":"Non-Classical Immunity Controls Microbiota Impact on Skin Immunity and Tissue Repair","volume":"172","author":"Linehan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, M.M., and Horswill, A.R. (2020). Staphylococcus epidermidis-Skin Friend or Foe?. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009026"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3596","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40471-3","article-title":"Common Skin Bacteria Protect Their Host from Oxidative Stress through Secreted Antioxidant RoxP","volume":"9","author":"Andersson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e86955","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.86955","article-title":"Transplantation of Human Skin Microbiota in Models of Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"1","author":"Myles","year":"2016","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e120608","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.120608","article-title":"First-in-Human Topical Microbiome Transplantation with Roseomonas Mucosa for Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"3","author":"Myles","year":"2018","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.13950","article-title":"Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938-a Comparative Study on the Effect of Probiotics and Lysates on Human Skin","volume":"28","author":"Khmaladze","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, Y.-O., Jeong, H., Cho, Y., Lee, E.-O., Jang, H.-W., Kim, J., Nam, K.T., and Lim, K.-M. (2019). Lysates of a Probiotic, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Can Improve Skin Barrier Function in a Reconstructed Human Epidermis Model. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20174289"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, H.Y., Jeong, D., Park, S.H., Shin, K.K., Hong, Y.H., Kim, E., Yu, Y.-G., Kim, T.-R., Kim, H., and Lee, J. (2020). Antiwrinkle and Antimelanogenesis Effects of Tyndallized Lactobacillus acidophilus KCCM12625P. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21051620"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Li, Y., Xie, X., Chen, M., Xue, L., Wang, J., Ye, Q., Wu, S., Yang, R., and Zhao, H. (2022). Exploration of the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Anti-Photoaging Effect of Limosilactobacillus Fermentum XJC60. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.838060"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12943","DOI":"10.1111\/phpp.12943","article-title":"A Narrative Review of the Impact of Ultraviolet Radiation and Sunscreen on the Skin Microbiome","volume":"40","author":"Grant","year":"2024","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1111\/ics.12910","article-title":"Sunscreens Can Preserve Human Skin Microbiome upon Erythemal UV Exposure","volume":"46","author":"Schuetz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Cosmet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Almeida, C.V., Antiga, E., and Lulli, M. (2023). Oral and Topical Probiotics and Postbiotics in Skincare and Dermatological Therapy: A Concise Review. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11061420"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, K.-B., Hong, Y.H., Jung, E.Y., Jo, K., and Suh, H.J. (2020). Changes in the Diversity of Human Skin Microbiota to Cosmetic Serum Containing Prebiotics: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Pers. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-36592\/v1"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1159\/000094670","article-title":"The pH of the Skin Surface and Its Impact on the Barrier Function","volume":"19","author":"Korting","year":"2006","journal-title":"Skin Pharmacol. Physiol."}],"container-title":["Current Issues in Molecular Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/48\/5\/493\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T11:22:37Z","timestamp":1778844157000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1467-3045\/48\/5\/493"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["cimb48050493"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cimb48050493","relation":{},"ISSN":["1467-3045"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1467-3045","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]}}}