{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T01:49:06Z","timestamp":1790732946457,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":385,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remain a world health problem leading to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Liver damage is primarily mediated by the innate and adaptive immune responses since HBV and HCV are not directly cytotoxic. Kupffer cells and liver-recruited macrophages are heavily implicated in both viral elimination and progression of the disease. HBV and HCV proteins polarize macrophages into either an M1 pro-inflammatory phenotype, promoting hepatocyte damage or into an M2 immunosuppressive phenotype, leading to viral persistence and fibrogenesis via cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-\u03b2). In this review a brief overview of the heterogeneity of liver macrophages in health and during chronic viral infection is presented. Recognition of viruses by macrophages and the modulation of macrophages by viral proteins in the pathogenesis of liver inflammation and injury are discussed in detail. Most importantly, the mechanisms that HBV and HCV are using to manipulate macrophages and escape elimination are also presented. The role of macrophages in the evolution of acute-on-chronic liver failure is analyzed. Finally, a concise presentation of the emerging, but not yet clinically used, therapeutic strategies targeting macrophages to control chronic HBV infection and restore the dysregulated immune response is discussed. In conclusion, this integrated review of liver macrophage implication summarizes the pathophysiology and pathogenesis of HBV and HCV including acute-on-chronic- liver failure and viral cirrhosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb48070687","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T14:33:06Z","timestamp":1783089186000},"page":"687","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Liver Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Viral Hepatitis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8595-2750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis","family":"Tsomidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Crete School of Medicine, Voutes Campus, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angeliki","family":"Tsakou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Internal Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Argyro","family":"Voumvouraki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Internal Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6875-906X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elias","family":"Kouroumalis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Crete School of Medicine, Voutes Campus, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, PAGNH University Hospital, University of Crete School of Medicine, 71500 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103233","article-title":"Single-cell RNA transcriptome landscape of hepatocytes and non-parenchymal cells in healthy and NAFLD mouse liver","volume":"24","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277808","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1277808","article-title":"Macrophages and platelets in liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"14","author":"Casari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. 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