{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T15:25:01Z","timestamp":1786116301998,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences\u2014NIH-NIGMS","award":["P20GM103446"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM103446"]}]},{"award":["P20GM103446"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM103446"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04q48ey07","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Curr. Issues Mol. Biol.","CIMB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The immune system is a critical system in evolutionary biology, shaped by coevolution between hosts and pathogens. The frog Xenopus is a valuable model organism for studying this process, offering insights into amphibian development, immunity, and the evolutionary dynamics of the interferon (IFN) response and viral interactions. The role of Xenopus IFN and the viral mimics introduced during the development of the immune system is discussed in this review, and the roles they played in the study of host\u2013pathogen interactions and in the replication of genes that allowed the development and complexity of the immune system are reflected. We discussed the molecular mechanisms of Xenopus IFN signaling and the emergence of viral mimics in evolutionary biology. This review offers insight into how immune systems evolve under the pressure of pathogens, and the understanding of Xenopus IFN, its viral mimics, and that of other leading players in the vertebrate immune system may have further applications in medicine and biotechnology. Xenopus is a good model for studying the evolutionary dynamics of immune systems. In conclusion, this review posits that further elucidation of vertebrate immune adaptation mechanisms\u2014particularly the evolutionary refinement of IFN-mediated antiviral restriction pathways, as demonstrated by Xenopus IFNs counteracting viral molecular mimics\u2014will critically inform the rational design of next-generation antiviral pharmacotherapies, structure-guided vaccine adjuvants, and targeted immunomodulatory biologics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb48080796","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T08:08:02Z","timestamp":1786003682000},"page":"796","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Xenopus Interferon and Viral Mimics: Insights into Evolution and Adaptation of Immune Response in Vertebrates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9916-8713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Collins","family":"Khwatenge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Delaware State University, Dover, DE 19901, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olayimika","family":"Adeyemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Delaware State University, Dover, DE 19901, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2003.10.005","article-title":"Innate immunity: An overview","volume":"40","author":"Beutler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. 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