{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T14:58:06Z","timestamp":1789138686695,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,16]],"date-time":"2025-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742083200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Current Oncology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brain metastases (BMs) are a relatively common and severe complication in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), significantly affecting patient prognosis. Metastatic tumor cells can alter the brain tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote an immunosuppressive state, characterized by reduced infiltration of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), diminished expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), and changes in other proinflammatory factors and immune cell populations. Microglia, the resident macrophages of the brain, play a pivotal role in modulating the central nervous system (CNS) microenvironment through interactions with metastatic cancer cells, astrocytes, and infiltrating T cells. The M2 phenotype of microglia contributes to immunosuppression in BM via the activation of signaling pathways such as STAT3 and PI3K-AKT-mTOR. Recent advances have enhanced our understanding of the immune landscape of BMs in NSCLC, particularly regarding immune evasion within the CNS. Current immunotherapeutic strategies, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, have shown promise for NSCLC patients with BM, demonstrating intracranial activity and manageable safety profiles. Future research is warranted to further explore the molecular and immune mechanisms underlying BM, aiming to develop more effective treatments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/curroncol32030171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,17]],"date-time":"2025-03-17T04:29:28Z","timestamp":1742185768000},"page":"171","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Immunotherapy and the Tumor Microenvironment in Brain Metastases from Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Challenges and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0187-2541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology (Medical Oncology), Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0134-1331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jihua","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology (Medical Oncology), Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2818-7669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuai","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology (Medical Oncology), Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harjot","family":"Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6051-2732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haiying","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology (Medical Oncology), Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2622","article-title":"Metastasis: From dissemination to organ-specific colonization","volume":"9","author":"Nguyen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. 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