{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T18:15:08Z","timestamp":1789668908180,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,12]],"date-time":"2021-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610409600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Diagnostics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Automated detection of vision threatening eye disease based on high resolution retinal fundus images requires accurate segmentation of the blood vessels. In this regard, detection and segmentation of finer vessels, which are obscured by a considerable degree of noise and poor illumination, is particularly challenging. These noises include (systematic) additive noise and multiplicative (speckle) noise, which arise due to various practical limitations of the fundus imaging systems. To address this inherent issue, we present an efficient unsupervised vessel segmentation strategy as a step towards accurate classification of eye diseases from the noisy fundus images. To that end, an ensemble block matching 3D (BM3D) speckle filter is proposed for removal of unwanted noise leading to improved detection. The BM3D-speckle filter, despite its ability to recover finer details (i.e., vessels in fundus images), yields a pattern of checkerboard artifacts in the aftermath of multiplicative (speckle) noise removal. These artifacts are generally ignored in the case of satellite images; however, in the case of fundus images, these artifacts have a degenerating effect on the segmentation or detection of fine vessels. To counter that, an ensemble of BM3D-speckle filter is proposed to suppress these artifacts while further sharpening the recovered vessels. This is subsequently used to devise an improved unsupervised segmentation strategy that can detect fine vessels even in the presence of dominant noise and yields an overall much improved accuracy. Testing was carried out on three publicly available databases namely Structured Analysis of the Retina (STARE), Digital Retinal Images for Vessel Extraction (DRIVE) and CHASE_DB1. We have achieved a sensitivity of 82.88, 81.41 and 82.03 on DRIVE, SATARE, and CHASE_DB1, respectively. The accuracy is also boosted to 95.41, 95.70 and 95.61 on DRIVE, SATARE, and CHASE_DB1, respectively. The performance of the proposed methods on images with pathologies was observed to be more convincing than the performance of similar state-of-the-art methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11010114","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,12]],"date-time":"2021-01-12T14:28:53Z","timestamp":1610461733000},"page":"114","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Towards Automated Eye Diagnosis: An Improved Retinal Vessel Segmentation Framework Using Ensemble Block Matching 3D Filter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8286-6139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khuram","family":"Naveed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Islamabad 45550, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faizan","family":"Daud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology, Faculty of Science Engineering &amp; Built Environment, Deakin University, Locked Bag 20000, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hussain","family":"Madni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Islamabad 45550, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Namal Institute, Mianwali, Namal 42200, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7477-1591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tariq","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology, Faculty of Science Engineering &amp; Built Environment, Deakin University, Locked Bag 20000, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Syed","family":"Naqvi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI), Islamabad 45550, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/66\/2\/204","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography-principles and applications","volume":"66","author":"Fercher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rep. 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